29. This same scheme sould be made applicable with the necessary modification, even if a composite course in the rigional language and Sanskrit was to be introduced as a compulsory subject. 30. as regards the nature and extent of the compulsory Sanskrit course in Secondary Schools--Whether in a three-language or a four-language scheme --only one thing might be emphasised, at this stage, namely, that on the ane hand, this course should be selfsufficient, that is to say, it should realise perfectly definite aims; and, on the other, it must contian within itself the potentiality of future advance. It should include, in adequate measure and up to a reasonable standard, such items as basic grammar, simple somposition, learning by heart some representative stanzas, inderstanding and appreciation of epic and some classical literature, and a general knowledge of the cultural background. 31. In the course of its inquiry, this Commission noticed that. in some States (more particularly in Bombay and Weat Bengal), Pali and Aardhamagadi (or the Prakrits) were allowed as alteratives for Sanskrit even at the Secondary School stage. The Commission also noticed that. in comparison with the syllabus in Sanskrit. that in Palior Ardhamagadhi )the Prakrits) was of an inordinately low standard. It appeared as if provision had been made, through these courses in Pali and Ardhamagadhi, for cheap passing. More often than not . students took to these languages merely by way of an escape from the imaginary and highly exaggerated rigours of Sanskrit. This point was very strongly pressed before the Commission by many witnesses. This state of things is actually provindg detrimental both to the study of Sanskrit and of Pali and the Prakrits, like Dr.P.L.Vaidva, Dr.Nalinaksa Datta and Dr. Hirala Jain, who were interviewed by this Commission were unanimous and unequivocal in their opinon that the study of these languages, which necessarily presupposed a sound grounding in Sanskrit, should not be introduced in Schools as alternatives to Sanskrit. At the same time, they expresses the view--and the Commission entirely agrees with them--that no higher study of Sanskrit would be complete without a fair knowledge of the Prakrits. We, therefore, recommend (i) that Pali and the Prakrits should not be allowed as alternatives to Sanskrits at the school stage, and (ii) that a study of the Prakrits should bemade an obligatory part of the courses in Special Sanskrit in Universities and Pathasalas. Provision should also be made for the Prakrits and Pali being taken as special subjects at the graduate and post-graduate stages. 32. The Commission would like to refer, at this stage, to a very vital matter, which was, in a sense, of an interim nature, as it might not have much relevance after our main recommendation regarding Sanskrit being made a compulsory subject in SecondarySchools had been generally accepted. In many parts of the country it was brought to our notice that, though there was nothing against Sanskrti as a subject in the University curriculum or the Secondary School curriculu, and though, thepretically, whoever wished to take Sanskrit might take it, for all pratical purposes, there was frequently a very great difficulty for students, who wished to read Sanskrit, to obtain instruction in the language. For a variety of reasons, mostly non-academic, schools are not providing teachers for Sanskrit. This is found even in Government schoold, and the result is that a number of students who do desire to study Sanskrit are being turned away. There are certain conditions imposed in some areas, such as that unless a suitable number of Sanskrit students--say 45--are available in a school, provision for a Sanskrit teacher cannot or need not be made. This acts as a vicious circle: On the plea that there are not enought students offering Sanskrit, provision for teaching Sanskrit is abolished ; and because such provision is abolished, students are not able to take Sanskrit. This is a matter which must be rectified at once. There should be a general provision in all schools, Government or private, for teaching of Sanskrit. The argument of financial burden should not be advanced against the compulsory provision in schools for the teaching of such an essential subject as Sanskrit. Failure to provide for the teaching of Sanskrit in a school in India whether as a compulsory subject or as an optional subject is something unthinkable, and no excuse can be accepted for this. This kind of attitude to Sanskrit, which is overtly apathetic but may be covertly hostile, needs to be put a stop to immediatley. 33. It was further brought to the notice of the Commission that, in some States, there were various technical difficulties in the way of a student who wished to take Sanskrit as an optional subject. For instance, students selecting a paricular course or a particular combination of subjects are automatically prevented from taking up Sanskrit as one of their subjects. The Commission recommends that no student should be barred for any reason, from offering Sanskrit as one of his subjects. 2. Two Systems of Sanskrit Education 34. In India there exist today two distinct patterns of specialised study of Sanskrit. There are, on the one hand, the Pathasalas in which Sanskrit is taught and learnt more or less according to the age-old traditional methods; and, on the other, thereare the Universities and Colleges of Western typr where Sanskrit is studied as a special subject along modern lines. This state of things regarding higher classical studies is peculiar to India. For, in Western countries, higher classical studies generally from an integral part of the University education and hardly have any place outside the Universities. The dual system of Sanskrit education in India is, in a sense, legacy of the British rule. As has been pointed out in Chapter II, originally, Sanskrit was studied only in the Pathasalas. Even the institutes of higher studies, which were first founded under the auspices of the East India Company, were of the nature of Pathasalas, where Sanskrit was studied exclusively, and that too in the traditional way. When however, the educational policy of the Company came to be re-orientated in the light of the new ideal of "Western Knowledge through English", and when, in consequence of this, English Schools and Colleges--and ultimately the three Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras--came to be established, Sanskrit began to be regarded as one of the several subjects preseribed for study and examination. Of course, the Universities and Colleges did provide for Sanskrit being chosen by students as their special subject of study, but the instruction in that subject used to be given along lined similar to those obtaining in English Universities with regard to the Classics. Thus the Pathasalas where Sanskrit was studied exclusively and in the traditional way, and the Universities and Colleges where Sanskrit could be taken as a special subject and was studied along modern lines--both existed side by side. 35. Ther can be doubt that both these systems of Sanskrit education have their merits and sefects. The traditional methos of Sanskrit education has retained many of the good points of the education may be said to have had a threefold aim: acquisition of knowledge, preparation for shouldering the prospective social responsinilities, and, above all, formation of character. To begin with the last aim. As we have seen, ancient Indian education was essentially personal and religious. The remarkably close contact between the teacher and the pupil, which was a special feature of ancient Indian education and which had been, to a large extent, preserved also in later Pathasalas, went a long way in inculcating in the pupil a sound moral character. Education was a kind of religious initiation; and the teacher's function was not merely to stuff the pupil's mind with the knowledge concerning a variety of subjects, but he had to act as a true spiritual guru of the pupil--as a veritable guide, friend and philosopher. For him, example was far more important than precept. It has been well said that, according to the anicent Indian educationla system, amn taught man, while in modern times, a method teaches a mass. Personal devotion and attachment to an individual teacher worked in ancient times as a for more potent influence in the life of a student than a general loyalty to an institution as at present. This guru-sisya-bhava (teacher-pupil relationship) was certainly a strong point of the Pathasalas. As regards acquisition of knowledge, the atmosphere of the Pathasalas was generally quite conducive to it. In an ideal Pathasala, there was no rigidity regarding time-table and curriculum. Deep and intendive study of a particular sastra was what was aimed at, and this mainly involved a very thorough understanding of the baisc texts of that sastra. Naturally, the teaching of the texts was never done in a superficial or haphazard manner. Ample scope was this afforded to a pupil to know almost everything of something. He learnt it all by heart (Kanthagata vidya) and was always ready with whatever he had learnt (upasthiti), without having had to refer to any taxts, notes or commentaries. 36. A person.who had successfully completed his training in a Pathasala.became sufficiently well equipped for fulfilling his obligations to the communtiy primarily as teacher, precher and priest. In return, he commanded the greatest respect from the community and could always earn, through grants of land other gifts and daksins, enough for a comfortable living. The Pathasala training must, accordingly, be said to have been in no way deficient even in respect of the second aim of education. 37. It must,however,beremembered that what has been said above is pertinent only as regards an ideal Pathasala. Such Pathasalas had long become a thing of the past, and the so-called traditional pattern of Sanskrit education which has been in vogue in the recent times has departed considerably from the age-old ideal. And this was, indeed, quite inevitable in view of the economic,social and political conditions in the country which had been changing fast and fundamentally. It was but natural that theancient Pathasala ideal should find it difficult to adjust itself to the new context. The traditional system of education began to prove quite inadequate in many respects. In this connection. it must be pointed out that there was nothing inherently defective in that system. Indeed, what were regarded as merits under a particular set of circumstances came to be looked upon as defects under another set of circumstances. 38. Perhaps the chief defect of the Pathasala system was its lack of adaptability to the changing situation. It remained staitic and stereotyped. The followers of that system seemed to live work in a kind of academic isolation. The Pathasalas continued to encourage the same old tendency towards specialisation only in one particular sastra, to the exclusion of other sastras. A student, whio went through such training, was often required to cram things without discriminationg between what was essential and what was not. What was perhaps worse, he invaribly pursued an isolated line of thought. This resulted in the knowledge, acuired by him in a Pathasala, becoming mechanical and lopsided. 39. Moreover, even in the course of the study of the particular sastra in which a student desired to specialise, he did not go beyong some set text-books. And, therefore, what he actually achieved was a mastery over a kind of fixed phraseology relatingto that sastra rather than an intelligent understanding of its contents. He started his study in a spirit of acceptance rather than of inquiry. He was rarely taught to approach a subject from critical, hisforical and comparative points of view. On the other hand, it was impressed on his mind that there was no possibility of any new knowledge on that subject had already been set forth in the ancient traditional text-books, and that there was no possibility of any new knowledge on that subject coming to light. The m,ost serious consequence of all this was that the Pathasala system soon became "barren"--it failed to encourage any conceptual advance, whcih is so very essential for academic progress. The Pathasalas rarely promoted any original investigation, and the creative activity of Sanskrit Pandits, with few exceptions had ceased long ago. Under these circumstances, it was but natural that the product of a Pathasala should suffer from a kind of academic imbalance, that his knowledge should havedepth eithout any breadth, that it should be thorough in a resticted sence but generally uncritical and unfruitful. 40. The Producat of the Pathasala system, with his peculiar background and taining, found it difficult to change with the times. His training in the Pathasala was such as could not, obviously, be expected to wquip him proper to cope with the new situation which he had to gace. The Preacher and the priest no longer commanded the respect which was once theirs, and a Pathasala Pandit was less in demand as a teacher in the new educational set up. The learning or Vidya, which a student acquired in a Pathasala, wa not materially profitable (arthakari); nor did it ensure his being honoured and respected (pratistha or puja) in society. A Sanskrit Pandit grew, so to say, in an atmosphere of segragation, both academic and social; he remained irresponsive to the impact of new knowledge and social progress. 41. The type of Sanskrit study in vogue in modern colleges and Universities has also its merits and drawbacks. There is no doubt that the Sanskrit student at the University has a much broader perspective than the Pathasala student, and his mind is more responsive. He is prepared to welcome new ideas and can entertain and examine dispassionately points of view different from his own. His is a critical mind, at once alert and adventurous. Equipped with all the information at his disposal and armed with the modern methods, the University-trained- Sanskrit has made great advances in research. He studies a few texts in a special way, a large number of others in a general way, and covers the rest of the literature in a historical survey. Original texts and contributions of particular masters and schools of thought are studied in the space-time context, and this enables him to evolve an over-all picture of the antiquity, variety, scope and richness of the whole process of Indian thought. This inter-related study of his has vitalised Sanskrit studies and has helped to bring about the Moder Renaissance inIndia. It is well-known that the better type of minds have been gradually drawn to University education. Any new advancement in Sanskrit or Indian though that has been achieved recently has been the work of the Universities. By pursuing Sanskrit as part of general education, the University Sanskritist has been able to bring whatever is of value in Sanskrit into the corpus of modern knowledge. Particularly in the realm of though and sociology, he has tried to understand the Indian pattern in relation to Western developments, and to interpret the Indian contribution to the outside world. At the same time , he has also thrown on the body of Indian notions the light of modern reason and science, and has, by and large, deepened and strengthened the strream of Indian thought. The recovery of the past which has made the Indian freedom movemnt a search for or a rediscovery of India's soul has largely been due to him. 42. While these great merits are obvious, the defects are no less obvious. reference has already been made to the intimate personal relationship obttaining between the teacher and the pupil in the ancient tradition, and its retention in the Pathasalas. The modern system is impersonal and some what mechanical. For the Pathasalas, education is part of a living religious tradition. In the University, education is carried on in a secular atmosphere. The chief drawback of University Sanskrit Education,from our point of view, is that, as Sanskrit is cultivated there along with a number of other subjects, intense and sustained study of the texts is not generally possible. While the historical and critical approach is commendable, the content of University Sanskrit Education turns out to be somewhat thin, transient and circumstantial. In a good many cases, the knowledge obtained by the University student is secondhand. The very historical method, which is claimed to be a characteristic feature of University Sanskrit Education, is liable to degenerate into a superficail antiquarian attitude; religious and philosophical texts come to be stidied as relics of the past. The intrinsic truth and validity of the ideas that a scriptural or philosophical text or a literary piece is read and understood. Thus the University student is apt to become estranged from his heritage, an uneasy sojourner in the domain of his own native culture. 43. We have analysed at some length the merits and defects of the two systems of Sanskrit Education obtaining in the country. There is no serious anxiety about the welfare of the University system. It is part of the living stream of modern life and shares its progress to a great extent. The anxiety is really about the Pathasala system of Sanskrit Education. Owing to a variety of reasons this latter system has been working under very unfavourable circumstances continuously for a consideable period of time, and has been suffering from poor and failing health. 44. It might be asked : Is the traditional mode of Sanskrit Education at all worth preserving? Can the Universities or other modern institutions (Research Centres and Indological Institutes) not be the proper substitutes in the modern age? While we should not belittle the work done by the Universities and Research Institutes in advancing the cause of Sanskrit Education and decry their methods as superficail in quality and meagre in influence, we should also not commit the opposite wrong of condemning the Pathasala mode of Sanskrit Education as outworn, uncritical, obscurantist or retrograde. It is not because of sentimental reasons of attachment to the past and on grounds of religoius or national pride that we would like the traditional type of learning to be preserved. There should be more solid and intrinsic reasons, if it is to survive and to play its essential part in the life of the nation. It is not possible to undo the historical circumstances which brought into existence the dual system of sanskrit study pursued respectively in the Pathasalas and the Universities. With the lapse of a century, they now appear unconnected and apparently divergent. It is no longer a question of ending or mending either of the two systems, nor even of blending. Both have their defects and merits, but we have to accept the systems as accomplished historical facts. a rapproachement may be attempted, eliminating the defects and appropriating the merits, taking care not to destroy the essential characteristics of either. 45. Some witnesses frankly expressed themselves against the continuance of the traditional system of the Pathasalas. some others, while admitting the desirability of preserving it, were sceptical about its ability to survive in the modern technologicalage. However, the great majority of witnesses nearly 90%) were definitely for retaining and improving the Pathasalas. For, they were convinced of their indispensability for our cultural and spiritual well-being. As a Commission charged with the dutyof ascertaining the nature and extent of informed public opinion in the ocuntry on this vital issue, we urge upon the Government this popular verdict in favour of the preservation of the Pathasalas. It may be added that out of those who categorically expressed themselves in favour of the retention of the Pathasalas, only a few were really opposed to any king of reformation of the old traditional system. 46. We have time and again pointed out that the relation of Sanskrit to Indian Languages and to Indian culture is not that of a past historical antecedent to its successor; it is that of a continuing perennial source to its tributory streams. Sanskrit has been supplying the literary and cultural norms down the ages. An intimate knowledge of Sanskrit is essential for understanding the systems of philosophy and religion which constitute the pride of Indian achievement. Without a considerable body of scholars of different types exclusively devoted to the study of the varied branches of Sanskrit Literature, Philosophy and Religion, most of the Sanskrit works, in which are enshrined some of the exalted thoughts of humanity, would soon become selaed books.47. The study of Sanskrit in the Universities cannot, for several reasons, be of such deep and sustained character, as in the Pathasalas. The student at the College and the University reads several modern subjects, besides Sanskrit, and his general equpment is vastly greater. As compared to the student of the Pathasalas, he necessarily devotes fewer years to the cultivation of Sanskrit and any of its special branches. Methods employed there are largely historical, comparative and critical. They do enlarge the vision and give a correct perspective. But however important pmdern methods and researches may be, they should not make us forget the heart of the matter, which is the direct and profound understanding of the texts. Sanskrit teaching in tehUniversities cannot. therefore, be expected to take the place of the Pathasalas, at least not in their present form. 48. The converse is no less true. We can no longer ignore the application of historical, comparative and critical methods developed in modern times, nor fail to take into account the discovery of new facts or of new relations of old facts made possiblethereby. It is really unnecessary to underrate the value as much of modern scholarship on the hand, as of traditional learning on the other. It is really unnecessary to underrate the value as much of modern scholarship on the one hand, as of traditional learning on the other. The traditional method is our own, but the importance of the modern methods cannot be set aside. In the sphere of learning there is room for all. Rightly conceived, the systems are complementary rather than competitive. It follows therefore, that while the modren method and outlook are not only inevitable but also imperatively desirable for a strengthening of Sanskrit studies, the stupendous learning of the old, wherever it exists, should not be allowed to perish. 49. For the sake of the completeness of the argument, we may consider the possible contention of somne ultra-moderns that once we translated the important works from Sanskrit into the modern languages, or otherwise succeeded in expressing ancient thought in current literature there should not any longer exist a general need for cultivating Sanskrit learning either in the Pathasalas or in the Universities. A few specialists may engage themselves in such studies out of antiquarian or purely historical interest. Such a facile assumption ignores two things: First, the vast amount of sustained scholarship and labour that would be required to translate most, if not all, works from Sanskrit in several language would be stupendous. In comparison, the cultivation of Sanskrit should prove much easier. Secondly, the authenticity of the translations, their ability to express the entire import of the original without distortion, cannot be guaranteed. In fact, there are some branches of Sanskrit learning, like Neo-logic (Navya-Nyaya) which cannot be adequately translated at all. There will thus always be the necessity to go back to the original sources for inspiration. This wxplains why there have been so many and so varied expositions and interpretations of the great scriptures by our Acharyas, and yet who can say that we have exhasuted and finally expressed all that they could mean for us? 50. Can the Pathasalas be preserved, and, if so, in what form? Some of the witnesses, while convinced of the intrinisic merits of the traditional learning, expressed grave doubts about it s viability in the present-day context. The question must be faced squarely. The Pathasalas have been steadily deteriorating and decaying for the past century or two, and this deterioration has been distressingly rapid in the last few decades. This fact is so evident on all sides that we need not think of questioning it. A consideration of the causes which led to this sad situation should prove of value as showing the way to remedy it. Year after year, fewer and fewer students are going to Pathasalas. The number of Pathasalas (e.g.nearly 1,400 in Uttar Pradesh) and the officail figures of students studying therein should not mislead us. Many, if not most, of the studentss of the Pathasalas in Uttar Pradesh and some parts of North India are what may be called "seasonal" students; they attend the Pathasalas only for a few months or weeks in the year when they can spare the time, after sowing and harvesting. Many of these, again, are school or college studentsm, who enrol themselves in Pathasalas for availling themselves of the small stipends or free accommodation. The number of genuine Pathasala students, if all these abstractions are made, will be just a fraction of that shown in official registers. Even in a centre like Navadwip in west Bengal, which was once famous for its teaching of Navya-Nyaya and where for the last six years an upgraded traditional Tol was being maintained by the State, we found to our regreat that the number of students in this sunject today was not more than two or three. In the Pathasala established at Kaladi, the birth-place of Adi Sankara, there was just one student, as the Sanskaracharya of Sringeri told us ruefully. And this in spite of the offer of stipend of Rs.60 per month plus free lodging. It is well known that sons of Pandits, with rare exceptions, no longer go tothe Pathasalas; they are generally sent to English schools and colleges, and eventually find lucrative employment. The Pathasalas are thus deprived of students of the right type and in sufficient numbers. 51. More deplorable than the falling numbers is the poor quality of students that are attracted to the Pathasalas; only those who, for economic or other reasons, cannot go in schools or colleges, join the Pathasalas. There is almost everywher a lack ofgood and earnest students, most of themcoming for the sake of the stipends or other advantages. Good and earnest teachers are also rare, and becoming still rarer. It is not that inducement of stipends and other facilities (free food, accommodation, etc.) are not offered in sufficient measure. It has been our painful experience that in quite a large number of institutions (both in the South and in the Eastern and the Northern States), such facilites remain unutilised. Added to this, there is the depressing sense of frustration and inferiority noticeable equally among the students and the teachers in the Pathasalas. 52. Our witnesses have been unanimous in pointing out to the one single factor which, more than any other, has engendered this state of affairs. There is no attractive future for those students who graduate from the Pathasalas. With tremendous good luck, a Sastri or an Acharya or a Tirtha or a Siromani may get employed in a Pathasala on a precarious and pitiful salsry which is hardly sufficient to provide him the barest necessities of life. Apart from the profession of teaching and some other related avocations, all other avenues of employment or income are not for him. 53. The main cause of such catastrophic turn in the fortunes of Sanskrit learning is the wrong and unbalanced policy of education pursued by the State since the adoption of Macaulay's Minute (1835). This resulted in neglect and decay of the indigenous traditional mode of learning. While the adoption of Western Education through the medium of English brought us into contact with the thought of modern Europe and helped us to make some advance in science and technology, it at once estranged us from our cultural norms and spiritual values. Material gain and social well-being came to be appraised as the only values of life. However, this is no reason why without detriment to the pursuit of scientific and technical education, the State should not provide for purely cultural values. It is incumbent on the State to give the right direction to education, by making it cater for all the needs of man. With the establishment of the National Government, the time has, indeed, come for the re-adjustment of the one-sided educational system, which has so long prevailed, by rectifying the mistake which was committed in the last century and which is still being perpetuated. If a century ago, the State policy devised a system of preponderately Western education, and we adopted it by logic of circumstances, it is imperatively necessary that the system should now be revised. There should now be a re-orientation of the State policy, which would assign an wqual place of dignity and importance to the new and the old learning, on a firmer basis of national consciousness. The historical facts show that Sanskrit can today be restored to its rightful place as a contributing factor of general culture, only if it is made an integral part of the Indian educational scheme. 54. If this need to re-orientate our educational policy is accepted, it only remains to point out the concrete measures by means of which this can be realised. There must be a clear realisation that the Sanskrit learning is an abiding value per se, unaffected by the change of circumstances. Owing to the exigencies of modern life and the revised hierarchy of values, the demand for scientific and technical education would certainly be more pressing; and the people who can devote themselves whole-heartedly to the intensive acquistion of Sanskrit learning, particularly of the traditional type, must be few. But the benefits flowing from those who take to Sanskrit would, in some form or the other, reach the entire nation. 55. One direct result of this realisation will be that the Union and the State Governments will not grudge the small expenditure incurred on the maintenance of the Pathasalas and special Sanskrit education--small in proportaion to what they spend on other educational schemes. This Commission is even led to think that if all the endowments earmarked for Sanskrit Pathasalas were fully and properly utilised, if the commitments of the Princely State, Zamindars and other formers Patrons in regard to the maintenace of the Sanskrit Institutions were honoured in full, and if the temple and other charitable funds were not diverted to other channels, Sanskrit education of the traditional type would pay its own way. We also saw that there was an appreciable supports for this type of Sanskrit learning among the public, and many well-to-do and educated persons were rendering active help to this cause. We may, therefore, legitimately hope that donations and endowments will continue to flow for this purpose in the future too. Indeed, we see no conceivable reason why the Pathasala system should not survive. It has amply demonstrated its vitality by continuing to maintaing the traditional learning under the most adverse circumstances. And if properly reorganised and directed, it may possibly begin a new phase in its career, in some respects even more fruitful than in the past. 56. With regard to the reorganisation of the Pathasalas, our recommendations fall broadly under two heads: (i) those that are concerned with the academic issues; and (ii) those which relate to the administrative and financial aspects. 57. Our first recommendation is that the Pathasala education should be given a status equal to the Secondary School and University education. There are already in existence several schools with scientific and vocational bias. There are also B.Sc. courses in the University, meant exclusively for Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, and various other technological subjects. A nation needs not only Scientists, Engineers and Technicians, but also a considerable body of men educated in Classics and the Humanities. The value of Sanskrit education as a great liberalising force has been already dealt with in Chapter IV. There is the necessity and the reason for maintaining Sanskrit learning as a distinct branch of education. The Pathasalas should, therefore, be reorganised as specialised Sanskrit Schools and Sanskrit Colleges, and these may well exist side by side with the present Secondary Schools and Colleges. 58. In accordance with this recommendation, the duration and courses of study throughout the different stages of the pathasala education should be brought on a par with the corresponding Secondary School and College stages. There should be a total of II years of of pre-University study divided into three stages: (i) Five years for Primary Education (which should be common to all students, whether in Sanskrit schools or in normal Secondary Schools); (ii) three years for Prathama; and (iii) three years for Madhyama, leading to the Entrance Examination, which should be held together with and as a part of the Secondary School Certificate Examination. There should then be five years of Higher Sanskrit study of the University standard, divided into two stages: (i) a three years' course leading to the graduate's degree, e.g.Sastri (U.P.and Punjab) and Preliminary (Madras); and (ii) two years of post-graduate study (leading to the degree of Acharya or Siromani). A post-Achary Research Degree, such as Vidya Vacaspati (corresponding to the Doctorate of the modern Universities)may also be instituted. 59. The Commission considers it very desirable that a uniform nomenclature is adopted throughout India to denote the different stages in the Pathasalas Education, e.g., Prathama (Lowere Secondary), Madhyama (Higher Secondary), Sastri (B.A.) and Acharya (M.A.), and that the duration of study at the various stages is also made uniform. The adoption of uniform duration and courses of study will greatly help in standardising the almost bewildering styles and titles of Pathasala examinations that are now current in the various States. This will also obviate the hardships at present caused to Pandits by the absence of rules regarding equivalence of titles among the different States. Further, such uniformity will facilitate the interchange of students andteachers throughout the country. All these measures for uniformity--in duration, courses and titles--will help in establishing a common standard in the Pathasala education in India. 60. With regard to the content of the courses of study at these different stages of Sanskrit Education of the Pathasala type, the Commission can only indicate the general lines on which they should be formulated. As the Prathma and the Madhyama stagesof the Pathasalas would correspond respectively to the Lowere and the Higher Secondary stages in normal Schools and would be reorganised on that baiss, the subjects of study and their standard in both places should also correspond, with this difference that in the Sanskrit Schools a special and intensive study of Sanskrit would be made. 61. The common subjects should be Mther-tongue and/or Hindi, General English, Social Studies (which should specially include Ancient Indian History and Culture) and General Science (including Mathematics). Out of the thirty-five periods available in a week, about sixteen periods should be assigned to Sanskrit, and the remaining to the other subjects at the end of the Madhyama stage should be the same as at the Matriculation or S.S.L.C. Examinations. In fact, as indicated above, there should be one common final examination for both types of schools. It is difference in or lowering ofthe standard; otherwise, the students studying in the Sanskrit Schools would suffer from a sense of inferiority. 62. After successfully completing completing the Sanskrit School Course, Students should be able either to join the Special Sanskrit Colleges (Higher Pathasalas), where the various Sastras could be studied intensively up to a high degree, or to proceed to General Collegiate Education. A few may also seek employment in suitable walks of life. But it is mainly as feeder institutions to Sanskrit Colleges that Pathasalas are to be reorganised and maintained. In the graduate and post-graduate stages of the Sanskrit College Course, a student should be able to study two or more Sastraic subjects thoroughly, along with English. Any periods assigned to the study of the mother-tongue at these stages would, in our opinion, be a needless burden. While teaching the various Sastras in the Sanskrit Colleges, attention should be specifically paid to acquainting the students with the modern trends and developments in these branches of knowledge. A more detailed consideration of the methods of teaching in the Pathasalas is taken up in the next Chapter. 63. The wisdom and propriety of reorgansiing the Pathasalas by the introducation of modern subjects in their curricula may be questioned. There is some truth in the statement that if you modernise the Pandit, he disappears. He would hardly be distinguishable from a mediocre M.A. If, on the other hand, we segregated the Pandit, and thus deprived him of the benefits of modern knowledge and modern methods, we would be perpetrating and intensifying the very deficiencies of which he was accused. He is at first denied the means of becoming well-informed, progressive and critical, and then is accused of being ignorant, stagnant, and dogmatic. Such accusation sould be laid at his door only if sincere and sustained efforts had been made to improve the state of Pandit learning, and the same had failed. This has not been done. 64. Between the two horns of the dilemma--the alternative of completely modernising the Pandit with his consequent disappearance, and the alternative of leaving him high and dry and thereby bringing about the segregation and stagnation of a very intellectual section of the nation--there is a middle course. It will be seen that the above alternatives are extreme, and express only half truths. we should modernise the Pandit, but not to the extent that his individualtiy and unique characteristics would be destroyed. Future experience may prove us wrong, and the experiment may not achieve the result that is hoped for. Let us, however, keep an open mind on this question, and have the humility to accept that it is an experiment in education well worth undertaking. 65. Realising the need for i,proving the Pathasalas and their teaching, in recent years, attempts have been made in several States (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madras, Andhra, and Kerala) to evolve a new type of Sanskrit Pathasalas known as the Reorganised Pathasalas or Adarsa Pathasalas or Sanskrit or Oriental High Schools and Colleges. The reorganisation of the Pathasalas is attempted mainly in the following directions: (I) inclusion in the curriculum of some modern subjects like Arithmetic, History and Geography, and even English, which are to be studied compulsorily; (2) introduction of graded courses of study; (3) proper test and classification of students at the time of admission; (4) fication of time-limit for the completion of courses; (5) preventing exclusive specialisation; (6) a general reorientation of the system as a whole with a view to improving the economic prospects of the students passing out of the Pathasalas, by making them suited for more avenues of employment; and (7) subjecting the management of the Pathasalas to a more effective official inspection and control. 66. The experiment is comparatively recent. It is too early to pronounce any judgment on its success or failure. The reorganised Pathasalas and Sanskrit Colleges cannot be said to have been given a sufficiently long and fair trial. Even the first finished products of these reorganised institutions have yet to emerge. However, what the Commission was able to see and know of the working of this new type of Pathasalas was not very encouraging. In most of the Pathasalas (as in UttarPradesh) there was no adequate provision for the teaching of the newly introduced modern subjects. Even where such provision was made in Uttar Pradesh, we found that in practice only Hindi and no other subjects were taught; and this certainly did not amount toomuch 67. The real reason for this by-passing of the essential provisions of the reorganisation is that most Pathasalas cannot afford to employ qualified teachers in the modern subjects, as they cost more in salsry and other emoluments. They cannot even afford to pay the one or two Pandits whom they employ on a mere pittance. As a result, the managements of the Pathasalas resort to various devious ways in evading the requirements demanded of them. Several irregular practices are adopted in the matter of attendance and examinations. It has to be impressed on the Governments as well as on the managements of the Pathasalas that, if the introducation of the modern subjects is considered desirable by them, adequate funds and other facilities should be made available for that purpose, and the system should be worked in a preoper mannere. 68. In the course of its tours, the Commission noticed that the system of the inspection of these reorganised Pathasalas had several gaps. In a State like Uttar Pradesh, where the number of such Pathasalas was very large, the personnel of the Government Inspectorate was not adequate in number. As a result, many Pathasalas could not be inspected at all for years. In some States like Punjab, there was no provision for the inspection of the Pathasalas. The Commission thinks that each Pathasala shouldbe inspected at least once every year, and that, at the time of the inspection, special attention should be paid to whether the necessary provisions of the reorganisation have been properly carried out by that Pathasala. 69. Apropos of the modernisation of the Pathasalas, a few witnesses stated that the attitude and outlook of the Sanskrit Pandits, who worked as teachers in these Pathasalas, must change fundamentally; unless this happened, it was futile to try to introduce modern methods of teaching and techniques of research. Modernisation of the minds of the Sanskrit Pandits was anecessary prerequisite for the modernisation of the institutions which they controlled. This is clearly arguing in a circle. Introducation of modern methods of teaching and research , it is suggested, is not possible without a prior modernisation of the minds of the Pandits. But this modernisation of the minds of the Pandits cannot, obviously, occur through chance; it can happen throughthe very introducation of modern methods of teaching and research. The circle is to be broken by those who are trained in the modern methods entering the Pathasalas as teachers and co-operating with the Pandits. This is essentially a venture in co-operation. One can never say that the Pandits are inferior in intellectual keenness or critical acumen. If proper facilities are given and the study itself is raised to its proper prestige, there is no reason why they should not acquire new knowledge and a spirit of research. 70. Many witnesses--specially Pandits--gave frank expression to the fear that the quality and depth of Pandit scholarship, thinner as it already was as compared to what it once had been, might still further suffer through the introducation of modern subjects in the Pathasalas. They accepted this introducation of modern subjects as an emergency measure (Apad-dharma), as the lesser of the two evils--namely, gradual extinction through isolation and unemployment on the one hand, and continuance with a lower standard of scholarship but with better opportunities for employment on the other. It must, however, be clearly realised that the introducation of the modern subjects in the curriculum of the Pathasalas is intended essentially for the broadening of the outlook of the students and for liberalishing their minds. That it would also help, to a certain extent, in improving their chances for employment must be regarded as merely incidental. The reorgansied institutions of Sanskrit study must aim primarily at producing a new type of Sanskrit Pandit and not merely Sanskrit-knowing clerks. The Sanskrit Pandit should be made acquainted with the cultural progress of the world, so that he might think on new lines and create new things. While keeping up the continuity of the old tradition, the reorganised courses need no longer be preponderately scholastic, nor divorced from reality. 71. It may be that the introducation of the modern subjects might result in lowereing the standard of Pandit scholarship to some extent, but it is not as if there are no means of remedying this. Firstly, the subjects introduced should not preponderate over the purely Sanskrit content of the course, nor should they be divorced from and be irrelevant to the subjects studied in the Sanskrit part. Secondly, the instruction in the Pathasalas should be organised on more regular and systematic lines. In the course of its tours, the Commission observed that, in some parts of the country, the Pathasala student was not being given full and systemmatic instruction as is now envisaged. He was working irregularly, and never for more than two or three hours a day. He was not being made to go through a regular school course of I I years (5 years of primary course and 6 years of Sanskrit School course) and college course of 5 years. If this was done, even after the introduction of courses in the modern subjects, a Pathasala student would get sufficient time to devote to a deep and intensive study of the Sanskrit Sastras. With the attraction to the Pathasala of the right type of students and the employment in it of well-organised course of teaching, involvinga fixed number of periods every day and a fixed number of working days in a year (as in other Schools and Colleges), the Pathasala system should improve quite perceptibly within a short time. The reorganisation of the Pathasalas nust be taken in hand in a systematic manner with asequate resources and specially trained personnel. Half-hearted and haphazard attempts would only bring discredit to the Pathasalas. 72. It is not suggested that any and every Pathasala should be reorganised and converted into a Sanskrit High School or a Sanskrit College. By the very nature of things, this is neither possible nor desirable. It must be always realised that the number of students going in for this specialised type of Sanskrit education would be much smaller than that of stuents taking up other courses in Colleges of Arts, Science and Technology. But for the few that go in for such specialised Sanskrit course, full and adequate provision must be made either by the States or by Private Bodies. Several Pathasalas in one place may be induced to merge or to pool their resources. They could employ common teachers for different subjects in an organised scheme of Inter-School and Inter-Collegiate classes. 73. There is also another experiment which may be tried in this connection. Several witnesses expresses the view that the reorganised Sanskrit School course should be introduced as part of the General High School education. Shri M. Patanjali Sastri, Ex-Chief Justice of India, was firmly of opinion that, today, Sanskrit education could not go on as a separate isolated activity, but should and must flourish only as part and parcel of the general scheme of education. The Commission, therefore, recommends that, wherever feasible, Sanskrit Wings should be added to the existing Secondary Schools. All the courses of the reorganised Sanskeir Schools should be conducted through these Sanskrit Wings. The student of the Sanskrit Wing can very conveniently read the common subjects together with the other students in the General Wing of the Secondary School. Only the instruction in special Sanskrit will be given to him separately. This will not only mean considerable saving of expenses on personnel and equipment, but, what is more important, it will break the segragation of Sanskrit Education. 74. As one can easily see, such segregation often creates a bad psychological effect. Education under the same roof and in the same institution as other students will help to remove from the mind of the student of special Sanskrit all trace of the inferiority complex, from which he would suffer if he were a student of a Pathasala. Moreover, several other advantages of the General Secondary School will accrue to the students of the Sanskrit wing. Compared to the number of students in a Secondary School, that in a Pathasala--whether reorganised or of the old type--is necessarily smaller. naturally, in the Pathasala, there are fewer opportunities for real corporate life. Similarly, aPathasala provides for few--if at all any--extra-mural activities like sports, debates, dramatics and excursions. If a Sanskrit Wing works as part of a General Secondary School, the students of special Sanskrit in the Sanskrit Wing will be ipso facto entitled to participate in the corporate life and the extra-mural activities of that Secondary School. In larger classes of the Secondary School, a clever student of special Sanskrit will have enough competition, which is so very necessary for his progress, but which he would not have in the limited sphere of a Pathasala. It is usually seen that free tuition, free boarding and free accommodation, which are usually offered by the Pathasalas, instead of being the assets of these institutions, often prove disadvantageous to them. For, many students join the Pathasalas for enjoying these facilities rather than from any genuine liking for Sanskrit Studies. The general level of the Pathasala students is, therefore, not very high. From all these points of view, it would appear that Special Sanskrit Courses could be better and more usefully organised in the Sanskrit Wings of the General Secondary Schools than in separately conducted Pathasalas. The Commission, therefore, feels that this experiment is well worth trying. Care should, however, be taken to see that the Sanskrit Wings do not ultimately vanish into the Secondary Schools. 75. Our recommendation regarding the reorganisation of the Pathasalas i,plies a three-tier system. Firstly there will be the reorganised Sanskrit High Schools comprising the Prathama and Madhyama stages of the Pathsala Education. Necessarily, these will form the base of the pyramid, and the number of such institutions will have to be large--large, that is to say, in comparison to that of the Sanskrit Colleges. Conditions vary widely from State to State, and the number of Sanskrit Schools in a State will depends on local conditional of demand and public support and the resources of the State. These Schools will lead to Sanskrit Colleges. Besides the exisiting Colleges, in live centres of Sanskrit learning with established tradition, some of the existing Pathasalas may be strengthened and upgraded as Sanskrit Colleges, providing instruction in the Sastras leading to the graduate and post-graduate degrees. At the top of this system, and completing it as it were, there should be a Sanskrit Schoolsand Colleges in the area. 76. The Sanskrit University should also serve as a Central Institution of Higher Sanskrit Learning and Research, with provision for a number of professorial chairs for the different Sastras. Each Department of the University should further have Readersor Lecturers attached to it, the cadre being determined by the requirements and the resources available. Adequate provision should be made for Libraray and Publications. As an affiliating University, the Sanskrit University should also function as anexamining and supervising body. It should award Degrees and Diplomas on the result of examinations, and enforce and maintain the proper academic standard in the Schools, Colleges and other Institutions affiliated to it. 77. One of the specific terms of refernce of this Commission is : "to examine the traditional system of Sanskrit Eduaction in order to find out what features from it could be usefully incorporated into the modern sytem". The Commission, therefore, undertook a thorough investigation of the Pathasala system as it now obtain in the different parts of the country, and has made concrete suggestions both in this and the succeeding Chapter regarding those features of the traditional system which could be taken into the University, and vice versa. The Commission believes that a judicious incorporation of the features of one system in the other, in the manner syggested by us, could strengthen and vitalise both of them. 78. An important question which posed itself before us was whether the two systems could not be still more intimately related by integrating them into one single system of Sanskrit Education and Higher Studies, instead of their being retained as two parallel systems as at present. 79. Integration implies that the integrated entities so fuse together that they lose their separate identity after the integration, to which both of them contribute some features not found in each one of them taken separately. The contribution need not necessarily be on a fifty-fifty basis. In the present context, we may conceive of three possible ways of integration: (I) The modern University Sanskrit Education may be taken as the basic foundation, and the characteristic features of the Pathasalas can be engrafted on it. In this case, the Pathasalas will be discontinued and will cease to exist, while the University System will continue to function with the added aspects of the Pathasalas; (2) The Second way is to take the Pathasala System as the Principal basis and to strengthen it by the incorporation into it of the characteristic features of the University System; (3) The third alternative will be the creation or emergence of a new System, a synthesis to which both the University and the Pathasala will contribute equally and in which both of them will merge completely. 80. Integration in the sense of a new synthesis emerging out of the two systems and superseding them both is not contemplated, and may, therefore, be left out of consideration. The second alternative is also not seriously though of. Although the Commission itself has recommended the incorporation of the modern methods of historical, comparative and critical approach in the higher stages of the Pathasalas, it is certainly not intended that the University Sanskrit Education should be discontinued andbe merged in the Pathasalas. We are thus left with only the first alternative. 81. There is nothing inherently incompatible or improbable in the University System acquiring a new dimension of Sanskrit Scholarship, wherein the depth and intensity of the Pathasalas learning is fruitfully combined with its own modern nethods of historical and critical approach. In the present state of its organisation, however, this may be difficult to achieve from the point of view of the average University student or teacher. It is nevertheless conceivable that, in the not too distant furture, owing largely to the adoption of the Pathasalas method of intensive, line-by-line study of the texts and their analytic understanding, the Pandit and the Professor may become indentical. We should even hope for this to happen. In this connection, a reference may be made to the view expressed by some witnesses--among them Dr.A .Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar--that integration and harmonisation of the two systems of Sanskrit Education should be first attempted at the higher level. That is to say, after an M.A.in Sanskrit has successfully completed his study, he should go through an intensive course of the Pathasala type and vice versa. Attempts at intempts at integration at a lower level carry the danger of hybridisation. At any rate, it present state, the Sanskrit Learning in the Universities is not and cannot be a substitute for the Pathasala typr of learning. 82. The two systems of Sanskrit Learning, each with its own antecedents and backsground, must approximate to each other more closely before they can be integrated. In the University Departments of Sanskrit, and elsewhere in the Indological and other similar Institutions, the Pandits must be intimately, extensively and continuously associated with the University men in their work, for a sufficiently long time. Only then can the University Sanskrit hope to acquire the new dimension of Pandit Scholarship. To discontinue, Prematurely, the Pathasalas, which are our principal source for the continued production of Pandits, would be unwise in the extreme; it could be likenedto the act of a person who blew out a burning torch before he had lighted his own lamp from it. The integration of the Pathasala System with the University System can itself be achieved only with the continued co-operation of Pandit Scholarship which derives its sustenance from the Pathasalas. When this distant but hoped-for integration would take place is more than what we can hazard to predict at the moment. Meanwhile, it is only proper that the Pathasalas should be preserved and strengthened, for it is through them alone that the desired integration could be achieved. There is perfect justification for the continued existence of the two systems of Sanskrit Education side by side, for some time to come, with a view to mutual co-operation. 3. Sanskrit as a Complement to Higher Studies in Other Subjects (a) Sanskrit as a Complement to the Study of Indian Languages 83. In a large number of Universities in Europe and America, there are special Chairs for Sanskrit. Where there are no such Chairs, teaching of the Sanskrit language has been generally made a part of the higher courses in Greek and Latin, and sometimesof the courses in Comparative and Historical Grammar of Indo-European. The intellectual and cultural value of Sanskrit and the great help it affords in the study of Linguistics as well as the European Classical Languages have been recognised in this way. In India, apart from the study of Sanskrit by itself, it is always necessary that those who are studying Modern Indian Languages as their special subjects should have at the B.A. (Honours) as also at the M.A. stage a Paper in Sanskrit. so also in the course for Greek and Latin for the B.A. (Honours) and M.A. Examinations, which we have in some of the Indian Universities, some provision should be made for Sanskrit. As part of the course in Linguistics, a paper in Sanskrit would be most desirable.The connection between Sanskrit on the one hand and the modern Europen languages, like English, French, German, Italian and Russian, on the other, is genetically close, and though it may not be a feasible proposition to include some Sanskrit in the courses for the above languages, an acquaintance with Sanskrit is bound to prove helpful to students taking up these courses. (b) Sanskrit and Other Subjects 84. Most of the Professors who were engaged in the study and teaching of Indian History and Archaeology and Indian Philosophy were agreed that a fair knowledge of Sanskrit should be regarded as a prerequisite for students desiring to prosecute higher studies in these subjects at the University. It was the view of a number of Professors of English literature and literary criticism, a reading of selections in Sanskrit Literature and Literarary Criticism (in English) would enable students to grasp the subject much better on a comparative basis. In any case, the Commission is of opinion that a knowledge of Sanskrit is to be always insisted upon for those who wish to study Indian Philosophy and Ancient Indian History and Culture including Archaeology, Architecture, Art, etc. For students of English and other modern literatures, a knowledge of Sanskrit should always be encouraged; and it there is a paper in Comparative Literature, the reding of suitable Sanskrit texts in English translation should also be presribed. Similarly, in different subjects like Medicine, Astronomy, Mathematics, etc., the University courses should provide, as part of the history of the respective sunjects, for the study of the contributions of India to these sciences, as embodied in old Sanskrit texts. (c) Study of Sanskrit Culture in the School and in the College. 85. There should be provision made for the teaching to all students of the general outlines of the culture enshrined in Sanskrit. A series of graded books should be written for both High Scholl students and Under-graduate College students, giving the basic facts about, among other things, Sanskrit Literature, Indian Philosophy and Religion, and Art and Architecture. These books written in the various modern Indian languages as well as in English, should be prescribed as part of a general course in literature or history (both of which are generally compulsory subjects in the School stage). In the college stage, there might be half a Paper of 50 marks in Indian Culture, inroduced as an additional subject in the Intermediate and the B.A. Courses. This would ensure for all students, including those who are outside of the Sanskrit orbit and, as such, do not take Sanskrit as a Classical Language, some opprtunity to know in a general way what India with her Sanskrit scholarship really stands for. CHAPTER VI TEACHING OF SANSKRIT (i) Introducation I. There is a wide-spread impression--and many witnesses confirmed that impression--that Sanskrit is a very difficult language to acquire, and a vast amount of effort is required to master it sufficiently well to read advanced texts by oneself. A language that is not in common use is, indeed, somewhat difficult to learn. But it is needlessly made more difficult because of wrong and unsuitable methods of teaching it. On thebasis of the evidence tendered before us by a number of experts, some of whom were teachers of long standing and some who had evolved special methods of teaching the language, and on the basis of our own observation of the teaching in the Pathasalas, Schools and Universities, we think that there is considerable scope for rationalisation in this regard. Such rationalisation would result in increasing the interest in learning Sanskrit and in improving the standard of Sanskrit scholarship at various levels. 2. The question of method of teaching has to be considered in relation to the capacity of the student at different stages and the degree of proficiency aimed at. What is suitable for the senior student in the College or the University may be quite beyond the High School student; what is quite proper for the Pathasala at various stages may not suit the University student. The Astadhyayi of Panini is, indeedm a wonderfully precise and well-tried instrument for teaching the Sanskrit language. But to prescribe it, even in the attenuated form of the Laghu-Siddhanta-Kaumudi for a beginner is a sure way to create aversion in him for Sanskrit. It is necessary to evolve suitable methods for the different types of students. The aim must be to achieve optimum results, at each level, with relatively less effort. The great consideration is to sustain the interest of the student in such a way that he takes to Sanskrit with zest and enthusiasm and is spurred on to greater effort. 3. The principal question in respect of the teaching of Sanskrit concerns the relative merits of the two different systems of Sanskrit education, namely, one associated with modern Schools and Universities, and the other with traditional Pathasalas or Tols. Can their good points be combined, and, if so, how and in what measure? A correct answer to this question should have far-reaching consequences on the future of Sanskrit learning in the country. Each mehtos, direct or indirect or some other, properly evolved and adjusted, has its legitimate use. At the higher levels, there is need for combining and mutually intensifying the traditional method of the Pathasalas and the modern critical and historical method in vogue in the Universities. We may classify the types of students as under:-- I. (a) The general student in the Secondary Schools who would be reading Sanskrit as a compulsory subject either independently or as part of a composite course in languages (vide our recommendations in Chapter V); (b) The student at the Higher Secondary School stage who has offered Sanskrit as an optional subject. I I. The student at the University level. I I I. The student in the Pathasala or the Tol (old tupe or reorganised): (a) at the Prathama and Madhyama stages; (b) at the Tirtha or Sastri and Acharya or Siromani Title stages. 4. As a large percentage pf students would finish education with the school and wpuld enter life or take to professional courses, it was necessary to see that the content of and grip over Sanskrit given to them at the school stage were sufficient to help them later, if they wanted to keep up or i,prove their Sanskrit privately. The teaching of Sanskrit at the school stage should also keep in view the fact that it would form the basis of the superstructure of the Collegiate study of Sanskrit. 5. Quite a number of pupils may opt for Sanskrit as one of their special subjects of study. it is on this class of students that University Sanskrit Education really depends. Correct and adequate steps must be taken to ensure a sound knowledge of Sanskrit for them. For, it is not only the Department of Sanskrit, but also the Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture, of Philosophy, and of Modern Indian Languages which look to them as their prospective students. (ii) The School 6. One of the questions to which the Commission devoted special attention in the course of its interviews and visits was that of teaching methods. The subject of Sanskrit teaching, however important, has not engaged the attention of authorities or scholars adequately, In only a few places, such as the Banaras Sanskrit College. the Andhra State, and the Annamalai and Punjab Universities, they have introduced short courses in Teachers' Training for Sanskrit Pandits. While, in the West, the question ofteaching the Foreign and the Classical languages has excercised the minds of educationists, and serveral studies have been published on the methods to be followed in that connection, in India, Sanskrit scholars, despite their enthusiasm, have unfortunately not directed sufficient attention to this subject. 7. So far as we are aware, there are a few papers on the problems of language study in the schools in which the place of Sanskrit is also discussed; and,on a larger scale and in a more detailed manner, there are a few books which deal with the subject of teaching methods in Sanskrit: A New Approach to Sanskrit by Bokil and Parasnis,, who have also brought out graded text-books; The Problem of Sanskrit Teaching (Sanskrta-Anusilana-Viveka) by G.S. Huparikar, which is in Sanskrit and English; and Sanskrta-Siksa-Vidhi (in Hindi) by Gaurisanker. Huparikar's work brings together all the material in the methodology adopted by the ancients in their exposition of the different Sastras of Pada, Vakya, Pramana and Vedanta which can be used to deduce pedagogical principles. He advocates a synthesis of traditional devices and the ideas which modern educationists of the West have put forth. A cursory view of ancient literature shows that works like the great Bhasyas imply the method of discourse. On the other hand, the literature that has grown in the form of guru-sisya-samvada shows the question-and answer method and the more active participation by the pupil; pari-prasna was always insisted upon in the part of the pupil. That the Indian Teacher put forth all effort not only to explain well, but to see that the student grasped and entered into the subject and felt the glow of understanding is borne out by the following observation of the Chinese Pilgrim, Hiuen Ts'ang "These teachers explain the general meaning (to their disciples) and teach them the minutiae; they rouse them to activity and skilfully win them to progress; they instruct the inert and sharpen the dull. When disciples intelligent and acute, are addicted to idle shirking, the teachers doggedly persevere repeating instruction until their training is finished". 8. The commentaries, particularly on the major Kavyas, really constitute the earlist and the best records of the methods of the method and scope of the general linguistic and literary education which the ancient Indian boy had at the early stage of hisschooling. One finds here set forth the method of syntactically construing the passages, the meanings of the more difficult words, the grammar of the more difficult usages, and finally something of the rhetoric and literary appeal of the verse. In theexplanation of these texts of the early school curricula, ancient teachers followed two methods which have been styled dandanvaya and khandanvaya, answering roughly to synthetic and analytical modes of construing a complete passage, which has a simple core to which adjectives and adverbs and subsidiary sentences hang. The latter method is also known more popularly as the akanksa method, in which the main verb is first taken hold of, and, by means of a series of questions, the subject, its attributes,the object, the adverbs and other parts of the passage are drawn out. Pandits in Tamilnad follow this method even now. This question-and-answer method certainly helps to make the student an active participant in the process of learning, instead of a mere passive listener. 9. Attention is generally turned to methods of teaching a language, not when that language is in a flourishing state, but only when it is in a new situation and its former adherents turn to some other language, or when fresh types of learners have to be taught. It is, therefore, only in the later ages and in the Muslim period, that we find some Sanskrit writers devoting attention to the question of evolving easy methods of teching. A full search has not been made by scholars of manuscripts of works useful for an investigation of the subject of Sanskrit pedagogy, but a few telling examples have been noticed: The Sloka-Yojanikopaya of Raghurama; the Anvayaprabodha of Omkaradasa who deals with the dandanvaya and the khandanvaya methods; and a few commentaries on the standard mahakavyas written from the point of view connection also of the Ukti-vyakti-prakarana of Damodara Pandita (early12th century), which uses a local language (Old Avadhi) for teaching Sanskrit, and the Mugdhavabodha-Auktika (written in 1394). which uses Old Gujarati for explaining Sanskrit grammar. At the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century, Varadaraja wrote the interesting work called Girvanapada-manjari, in which, surprisingly, he inforporates many of the modern ideas that we have in teaching : the direct method, questions and answer, and easy conversational style: Proceeding from the known objects and the wors and ideas of common activity; avoidance of difficult verbal forms; and use of participles. 10. When Sanskrit came to be first taught in modern English High Schools, the educationists were all naturally preparing the teaching materials on the basis of those obtaining in the WEst. The first books to come into the field and to gain wide use for starting Sanskrit teaching from the lower secondary stage onwards were : Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar's elementary grammar and graded readers of Sanskrit (1851 onwards) and R.G.Bhandarkar's Sanskrit Books I and I I (1864-68). Bhandarkar followed the planadopted in the West in teaching Greek and Latin, and gave graded exercises of grammar, vocabulary and translation. His books were later rendered from English into some omdern Indian languages and came to be used very widely. On more or less the same model were written Kale's lower and higher grammars; and also the easier book. Apte's Guide to Sanskrit Composition. In course of time, it came to be felt that still easier introductions to Sanskrit could be prepared. Consequently, for use in lower classes, in many parts of India, easy Sanskrit Primers, adopting the plan of English and Vernacular text-books, were produced. These text-books started with the introduction of simple words, the learning of which was facilitated by corresponding pictures of the objects. Simple sentences were framed at the end of each lesson; short fables were added; but, side by side with these, use was also made of a simple book of grammar, giving mainly declensions and conjugations. 11. It is necessary, at this stage, to deal with memorisation. The concept of memory cannot be divorced from the concept of know ledge. Retention of ideas and their recollection and use, and even the process of thinking, are all bound up with memory.At the early stages, the learning of the alphabet, the picking up of Arithmetic--addition, substraction and multiplication--the spelling of words, all these are based on memorisation. Discontinuance of memorising only leads to weakening of the urge to gain knowledge among the young. At any rate, criticism of memorisation cannot be valid in respect of the early stages; it may be valid in respect of mechanical cramming in the higher stages. In the case of Sanskrit, whcih is not spoken like the mother-tongue and which one does not hear falling on one's ears from all around, the parts of this speech have to be picked up from books or from special teaching. While in the case of the mother-tongue or other spoken languages, which one often hears, the child picks up the spoken forms first from the tongues of living speakers and goes later to a book only for a scientific grasp of its composition, in the case of Sanskrit, the child has to resort to the book or the teacher from the very beginning. In ancient India. whatever method was used, it was easier to learn Sanskrit because there was far more of a Sanskrit environment, at home and outside, and the opportunities for the child to get by the ear chunks, so to say, of actual spoken Sanskrit were amply available. The case of the present-day students of Sanskrit is more difficult; and hence the need for him to do a little more memorising than students of the other spoken tongues. Memorising has been the backbone of Sanskrit education,as much as of any other ancient system of education. The Vedic texts and the greater part of Sanskrit literature were handed down by oral tradition. Memorising was the practical way of making a branch of knowledge part and parcel of one's being of making oneself one with that knowledge. Hence the learning, that was in written books, was considered less useful; pustakastha vidya was always derided, the kanthagata vidya was praised. At its best, the ancient system produced true walking encyclopaedias. 12. Even in modern times, educationists do advocate memorising at particular stages and for particular types of the material taught. We would, therefore, suggest that memorising should not be frowned at and that it should be judiciously employed at different stages, both earlier and later, and for particular types of the material taught. The paradigms of declension and conjugation of Sanskrit come under the category referred to above, and all that can be said in caution is that, when making the students get them by heart, he may also be, according to his age and receiving capacity, taught to grasp intelligently the principles behind those paradigms, so that he may develop enough initiative to apply them to other stems and roots and not shy at venturing forth into the developed forms of stems and roots not memorised by him. What ever simplification of language or grammar or teaching method a gifted educationist might evolve, there is no getting away from a certain quantum of memorising. This we want to emphasise, as with a certain unreality, there goes on an indiscriminate decrying of memorising, which has adverse repercussions on the very growth of the intellect and learning habits of the modern child. Memorising in Sanskrit has its compensations. If the paradigms are dry, the Subhasitas, which one learns by heart in the early years, become his friend, philosopher and guide all through his life and equip him in his life and public activity with ready wit and wisdom. And if a Sanskritist cultivated memory for the verses of Valmiki and Kalidasa or for the rolling symphonies of Bana, they would prove a never-failing relaxation and delight to him. 13. Most of the modern ideas on the question of teaching of languages have been dealt with in the book A New Approach to Sanskrit already referred to : the new direct method, employment of the conversational style, proceeding from the known to the unknown, and the use of other aids like illustrations and visual charts, auditory supplementation through demonstrations, dialogues, sceni enactments, etc. The principle of taking the child from the known to the unknown does not consist merely in using familiar objects and ideas of daily activity at home and outside. It also includes the pressing into full use of the Sanskrit vocabulary which is already immanent in the mother-tongue and which has only to be identified afresh or pruned and polished where necessary for the child. The Commission would like to reiterate this, that, to the Indian child, Sanskrit is not a different language like English --it is flesh of the flesh and bone of the child's mother-tongue, and even as the child learns his or her mother-tongue, he or she is learning some Sanskrit. 14. However, the Sanskrit teacher must not concentrate on this only. Fro, knowing more words is not all in all. The syntactical connections are more important, and they cannot be taught except throug inculcation of some grammar. Declensional and verbal forms should first be taugh as fully fledged parts of speech rather than as stems, roots and terminations. Both in declensional and conjugational forms, simpler ones should be taken first. Instead of teaching pure grammar, which gives only bits of the speech in isolkation, the whole live speech should be given to the student, and grammar taught as a complement to it. This policy of applied or incidental grammar should be pursued up to a stage when the student gets a suuficient quantum of the language and is in a position to discover for himself the similar and dissimilar forms, on the recognition of which his desire to know the underlying principles of these similarities and dissimilarities would naturally grow. 15. Whether they teach actual language or grammar, the Sanskrit teachers should bring to their work a real interest and enthusiasm, and harness all such modern aids as have come to be handled in the teaching of English and other languages. The introduction of newly designed exercises, including oral recitations and dialogues and compertitions therein, preparation of charts and exhibits, etc., are divices, which would form both an education and a pastime, and should be employed along with the orthodoxexercises in translation and composition. The extra-curricular activities should be made to supplement the class-work; it is a matter of common experience that, in dramatic productions and the rehearsals conducted therefor, students get a rare opportunity to handle spoken Sanskrit and to develop a taste and ability for speaking in Sanskrit. 16. Witnesses uniformly stresses the point that, at the present stage of Sanskrit studies, the foremost need was to bestow thought on the changes needed in the teaching methods adopted, so that learning Sanskrit, which has long been stigmatised as difficult, could be made easy and interesting. Both Pandits who taught in Pathasalas and Sanskrit Degree holders who taught in Schools should, in the opinion of this Commission, undergo a pedagogic course in Sanskrit teaching. Such a course, the Commission recommends, should be organised as a full one year's course in a regular Training College. If due attention was paid to this question by recongnising Sanskrit Teaching as a special subject of study and investigation, many new ideas would suggest themselves and experiments could be carried on in teaching methods, along the lines of modern researches. 17. On the question of medium of instruction, the Commission made extensive enquiries. The bulk of the opinion was that in the school stage, it was no longer advisable to continue to employ the English medium for teaching Sanskrit. The consensus was that the mother-tongue or the regional language should be used for this purpose. In fact, the young student would learn Sanskrit quicker and in an easier and more natural way if the mother-tongue was employed as the medium of instruction. It was, however, suggested by some witnesses--and the Commission also agrees with that suggestion--that, as part of the direct and conversational method to be employed, Sanskrit should also be used now and then. (iii) Teaching of Sanskrit in Colleges 18. The modern collegiate study of Sanskrit has its chief characteristic in its historical and scientific approach. It is certainly not intended to provide for a soft course by by-passing the difficult Sastras, though, on account of the limited time available and the multiplicity of other subjects which a college student is expected to pursue, substantial provision for Sastraic study cannot naturally be made in colleges. There is a fairly wide-spread notion that a graduate or even a Master of Arts in Sanskrit has but a superficial acquaintance with the Sanskrit language and literature. This is not wholly true. Quite a number of Masters of Arts in Sanskrit can compare favourably with Siromanis, Sastris and Acharyas in their knowledge of Sanskrit.A specially gifted University student, who cultivates the Sastras for some years, should even prove the better scholar. It remains true, however, that the average University student is not able to acquire a mastery of the language or a deep knowledge of the Sastras. It is, indeed doubtful whether he would be able to read and understand any of the higher Sastraic texts by himself. 19. There are certain comtributory causes for this state of affairs. Firstly, in modern schools and colleges, Sanskrit is not studied exclusively, but pursued along with a large number of other subjects. Secondly, the better type of student is not normally attracted to the study of the Humanities in general. Sanskrit which a student gets in the Secondary Schools is poor and shaky. A good super-structure cannot be raised on such rickety foundations. If our recommendations in connection with the teaching of Sanskrit in the Secondary Schools are accepted, the University standard will improve very considerably. 20. It is also necessary that the syllabus of studies in Sanskrit for the higher University degrees include Sastraic texts and not merely texts of general literature. M.A. courses in some Universities no doubt do comprise Sastraic texts, but the authorities should see to it that the intended end is achieved by providing for the adequate teaching of these texts by teachers qualified in Sastras. In the course of its tours, the Commission observed that, in some places, advanced Sastraic texts were included in the M.A. syllabus, but the Departments were not helped to provide for their proper teaching. 21. It is usually seen that, for securing a pass at the examinations, a student relies upon notes and translations and keys and cribs. With a meagre knowledge of the text, but with the generous help of the notes , a candidate can securehigh marks. Sanskrit is not taught through the medium of Sanskrit, but generally through English. The average student seldom attains fluency in speaking or writing Sanskrit, and naturally so, because the syllabus and the methods of teaching do not comprehend these among their aims. It is absolutely necessary that a student acquires some mastery of the language. It is legitimate to expect that a University Degree in Sanskrit should carry with it some ability to speak and write in that language. The increased use of Sanskrit as the medium of instruction in Sastra-subjects, as also extra-curricular organisation of Essay-Competitions, Speaking-Contests, Dramas, etc., would prove of great help in realising this objective. 22. One of the distinguidhing features of Sanskrit teaching in modern colleges is the emphasis put on the critical appreciation of Sanskrit literature and its contribution. Obviously this kind of critical and historical study is not expected to be pursued at the sacrifice of the actual study of the texts themselves. However, there is the fact that the University Sanskrit education tends to give the student more about the subject or the text (its historical background, the different views of scholars regarding it, etc.) than the text itself, thus making his knowledge external and not direct and intense. The remedy obviously lies in fostering the intensive line-by-line study of the texts, literary and philosophical, to the greatest extent possible atvarious levels. The teaching of selected portions of basic texts in the Panditic way would give a new dimension to the Sanskrit teaching in the Universities. This is in effect the introduction of the traditional method of the Pathasalas in the Universities. It is quite possible that, with a keener understanding of the texts, combined with critical and historical outlook, the University student will in the long run prove superior to the mere Pandit in his own field. 23. In many Univerities (such as Madras. Banaras, and Calcutta) intensive textual study is specially attended to in the Departments of Sanskrit. Philosophy and Ancient Indian Cultue, and Pandits are employed on the staff of their Sanskrit Departments. This practice should be more generally adopted all over the country, and the scope of textual study widened . Thereby, the Pandits who are employed in the University Departments, on their part, will alo gain in breadth of outlook and critical analysis. As the time at the disposal of the University student (even in the M.A.classes) is limited, promising students should encouraged to specialise in a particular Sastra for a period of two or more years after their M.A. Facilities should also be provided, wherver possible, for students to offer a purely Sanskrit course of the Pathsala (Siromani, Sastri, Acharya, etc.) along with or after the B.A. and M.A.courses. The Commission found that, in some Sanskrit colleges, particularly in Banaras, Calcutta, Gujarat and Rajasthan, Sanskrit students of modern schools and colleges were also allowed to sit in the classes and listen to the lessons. In Calcutta, some contact has now been established between the University students and the Sanskrit College. Such a practice may be followed in other centres also. The aim should be to create such conditions as might gradually and naturally lead to an integration of thetwo systems of Sanskrit learning (the Pathasala and the University systems) which have been functioning on parallel lines. A well conceived and properly phased synthesis birth of a new Sanskrit scholarship--deep, critical and creative. (iv) The Pathasala and the Traditional Method 24. The system current in the existing Pathasalas or Tols is not exactly the old traditional system. The old system was primarily of the Gurukula type, where students lived a corporate life with the Guru as the cntre of the community. They lived with him, doing concentrated study for years and forming a particular school of though. It was insuch circles (Caranas or Sakhas) coming down from the Vedic times, each with an individual stamp of its own, that the Sastras were cultivated and an unbroken tradition was preserved. The broad current of the Pandit learning, however, slowly began to tthin, owing to various historical causes; and in the beginnig of the last century, except in very famous centres, it reached a dwindling point. The content of learning became reduced to a minimum, and Jayanarayana Tarkapancanana, in the beginning of the last century, lamented, in his preface to the Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha, that the Pandits of his time read only four books. It was only after their re-emergence under modern affiliations that the Pathasalas witnessed a fresh rehabilitation. 25.The Pathasalas now in vogue are rather loosely knit organisation without the intimate corporate life of Gurukulas. Although the number of pupils in them is not as large as in modern schools and colleges, the present Pathasalas are run more or less on the lines of the modern scholls and colleges. The prescription of texts or syllabuses of studies and the institution of the examination system as the test of scholarship have been adopted almost universally. This has brough about a kind of uniformityand is helpful as a formal and recognised means of assessing the attinment of a standard of scholarhip. There are, however, certain evils associated with the system of prescribed texts and particularyof examinations. it has led to the deterioration in the standard of Pandit scholarship. It is interesting to note that in Banaras such examinations were looked down upon when they were first introduced. This was also true of ther centres of traditional learning. This deterioration in Scholarship caused by the present examination system has to be remedied. 26. The Pathasala method of teaching essentially implies an intensive study of the Sastraic texts together with the commentaries. The texts are studied line by line, construing every sentence and every word in the sentence, squeezing out all its implications. Although the extent of study may not be impressive, the depth and thoroughness are remarkable. A Pandit, who devotes about 15 or 20 years to the study of a particular Sastra or a group of allied subjects, generally becomes a master of the subject. His knownledge is precise and ready; there is no fumbling or hesitancy about him. He does not need notes, not even the book, for expounding the text. 27. This attainment is based on a sustained training of memory. It relies rather heavily on the retentive and conservative functions of the mind. This is not to be despised or belittled, as is done in many quarters. For, in the last analysis, learningis based on memory. If the previously learnt facts were not retained, one would have to go over the same thing again and again. It is obvious that no progress would be possible, as the foundation would be slipping all the time. Easy recall of what has been learnt certainly facilitates further learning. It gives massive strength and a firm foundation. Too much reliance on mamory might, however, hinder progress by its very massiveness and weight. It might destroy resilience of mind and initiative; the intellect might be so firmly moored to its anchorage that is would not enjoy any free movement; the intellectual horizon would become narrow and cramped. It is precisely here that modern methods can play a significant part. 28. We would like to suggest that the current method in the Pathasalas might be improved by broad-basing the studies in the following manner. Too narrow and too premature specialisation should be avoided. Although some specialisation might be attempted at the Madhyama and the Sastri stages, it should not be of an intensive nature. Greater emphasis should be placed on the student acquiring a very sound knowledge of the general literature and of the principles of several Sastras allied to the one chosen by him. In this respect, the courses of studies of the Panjab Sastri and the Madras Siromani Examinations are worthy of extended acceptance in other States. It is not uncommon to find Sastris and Acharyas possessing the knowledge not of the whole of the Tattvacintamani but of just a few tracts on topics in the Anumanakhanda. In Vyakarana and Nyaya, the Pathasala students generally concentrate upon acquiring the refinements of definitions (Pariskara). This may appear to yield quick results, but it is invariably at the cost of broad and sound knownledge of the Sastras. A graduate (Sastri or an equivalent degree-holder) should be well-grounded in several basic Sastras including Vyakarana, Sahitya and the Veda. The phenomenon of a Vedantin beingweak in Nyaya and innocent of sahitya or vyakarana and suffering from other kinds of lopsidedness should be remedied. A student might specialise in one or more of the Sastras at a later stage, preferably at the Acharya level. The widening of the mental horizon and the power to generalise and suggest alternatives might well result from the broad-basing of the courses at the lower levels. 29. The Sastras have had a long and rich history. In all of them there are two periods of growth: the earlier formative age and the age of later developments. The Pracina and the Navina are accepted phases in the growth of each Sastra. But it is foundthat due attention is not paid always or in all places to the Pracina phase, and only some later texts, primers or Vada-granthas are studied. Thanks to research, hunt for mauscripts and publication of rare old works, many of the ancient master-pieces of the Pracina phase in Nyaya, Vedanta, Mimamsa etc., have come to light. Works, which expound distinct schools of though and which have been for long mere hearsay to the Pandit, have today come to light. It is but proper that all this ancient literature should be brough into the curriculum, so that a more comprehensive idea of the scope and development of a Sastra could be given to the Pandit-student. Even when such earlier and standard works are available, certain parts of the country have been, owing to some traditionally handed down syllabus, neglecting important schools or texts: for example, the Paninian school of grammar is generally neglected in Bengal and generally in all East Inidan regions. It is certainly disconcertaing that, in the Sahitya course in Jammu and Kashmir, of all places, the Dhvanyaloka is not studied. 30. The Commission noticed that, in many parts of India, provision was not available in the Pathasalas for the special study of the Veda. Some selections from Vedic literature were found included in the general part of the Pathasala courses, in some regions but not everywhere. This sort of provision is wholly inadequate, in view of the fundamental importance of the Veda. The Commission thinks that, along with the different Sastras, such as Mimamsa, vyakarana and Sahitya which are offered for examination, the Veda also should be introduced as a special group in the Pathasalas. The syllabus of this Veda group should be such as would comprise portions not only of the four Vedas (with bhasya) but also of the ancillary Vedic texts. The Commission recommends that there should be compulsory provision for some study of the Veda in the general course of the Pathasalas. it further recommends that provision should be available in the Pathasalas for a special course in the Veda and its ancillaries. 31. The Commission also found an almost total neglect among traditional Pandits of the study of Buddist philosophical texts and to a certain extent of Jainism. For adequate understanding of such texts as the Sloka-Varttika of Kumarila of the Tatparya-Tika of Vachaspati Misra or the Nyaya-Manjari of Jayanta (to mention only some examples), a first-hand acquaintance of Buddhist logical and philosophical texts is necessary. The study of Buddhist and Jaina texts will not only be valuable in itself, but it will also help to throw light on the nature and development of the orthodox schools. 32. Some witnesses stated before us that at least a working knowledge of Navya Navya (the New Logic associated with Gangesa Upadhyaya and his followers) should be imparted to all students of higher Sanskrit learning. Navya Nyaya is a precise tool, and its value as an intellect-sharpener cannot be denied. Its formalism is likely to become deadening only if it is cultivated exclusively as an end in itself. Apart from its general disciplinary value, Navya Nyaya is necessary for the understanding of some of the later developments in many Sastras. The dialectical phase of the Vedanta (represented by the Citsukhi and the Advaita-Siddhi, etc.) and the Pariskara mode of elaboration adopted in Vyakarana and even in Sahitya may be cited as examples. 33. Among the Sastras now provided for in most Sanskrit colleges, one finds that generally the six Darsanas, Vyakarana and Sahitya are taught. Among the orthodox developments, the Saiva Schools, including Pratyabhijna, the Tantra and other forms of though, which are neglected should also be taught, so that a student of the Sastras might have as far as possible a well-rounded view of the thought-ferment in ancient India. 34. We further suggest that in the graduate and post-graduate classes of the Sanskrit colleges and adequate knowledge of the developments in the West in corresponding disciplines should be imparted. For instance, a student of Darsans should have a fairknow legdge of European Philsosophy and Logic. When the Pandit mind, which has remained insulated and dormant for centuries, is brought into contact with the stimulating thought of a living stream of ideas, it is bound to react and expand. It will acquire a new and broader perspective of things, and will be in a better position to assess the value of its own achievements. It is also to be hoped that when this hisorical and comparative study takes root in the Pathasalas, our Sastras may be reformulated and enriched. It mught take a generation or two before any concrete result could be perceived in this direction, but the foundations should be laid right now. 35. We also wish to suggest some reform in the pedagogical method used in the Pathasalas. The general practice followed is that the teacher goes on expounding the texts, line after line, word by word. Little attempt is made to ascertain whether the students grasp the meaning and the implications of the passages expounded. In various Pathasalas which we visited, we put questions to the students in the different subjects and were quite disappointed at the answers given, or, as it was not unoften the case, at their inability to give any answer. We would suggest that, instead of the teacher himself reading the text, as is often done, the studetns should be asked to read; for, this would compel them to bestow greater attention on the subject. Secondly, as one of our witnesses, himself a Pandit, said, the subject-matter of the text should be first explained by the teacher briefly, and then the text should be read. Thirdly, the teacher should put frequent question to the students in order to test whether they have really grasped the point and are following his exposition. The method of drawing out the student should replace that of keeping him a passive listener. There are several subjects, particularly where prakriya is taught, where the employment of the black boar, charts and other viual aids will certainly help the student. All such modern methods should be fully utilised to make the teaching of the Sastras interesting and effective. 36. It is essential that Sanskrit is used as the medium of instruction in the Pathasalas. The Commission, however found that, in most Pathasalas, instruction was given through the medium of the mothertongue. It is to be recommended, in this connection, that Sanskrit should be normally used as the medium of instruction in the Pathasalas. If necessary, the mother-tongue may be used only in lower classes. 37. It should not be supposed that extra-curricular activities can be fruitfully adopted only in modern schools and colleges to sipport and augment the instruction given in the classes. In Pathasalas also, Sanskrit Associations, Debates, running of College Magazines, Dramas, and organising and taking part in Literray Festivals or Celebrations in honour of great Sanskrit writers, etc., can further the knowledge and sustain the enthusiasm of the students. In certain Sastras, it would be useful to enable the students to have contacts with appropriate activities related to their subjects. For instance, the students of Mimamsa might attend various rites, rituals and sacrifices or might have a practical course in performing these, so that their knowledgewould not remain merely witness suggested that there was need to build up proper Srauta-Museum as ritualism was fast disappearing and there was no other way of knowing the material and milieu of the Purva Mimamsa. In Yoga again, it might be most appropriate if students were taugh Pranayama and Asana. In fact, if all the Pathasalas had provision for the teaching of Yogic exercises, it would not only be highly advantageous to the health and well-being of the students, but it would also give them a grounding in one of the basic and most characteristic aspects of Indian spiritual life. 38. A serious drawback of the line-by-line method of exposition is that students do not ever have a knowledge of the subject as a whole, or even of particular topics comprised therein. it is extremely doubtful whether they would be able to give an expostition of the subjects studied by them in their own words or in a different order. The wood is lost in the trees, or rather, in the branches and the leaves. We are even doubtful whether many Pandits, who are masters of the texts, would be able to give free expositions or lectures on the topics of their special field. Fewer still have cultivated the art of writing essays and dissertations. The Pandit does not use the pen; he uses hios speech alone. 39. While it is quite essential that there should be an intensive, line-by-line, study of the Sastras, it is no less essential that their general import should be understood as a whole. It is true that, in some of the examinations (Siromani, Sastri, Acharya), there is a General Essay Paper where the students have to write one long continous exposition in Sanskrit of a Sastraic topic. But we did not see, in any of the Pathasalas which we visited, any definite measures taken to equip the students for this. We would, therefore, suggest that the senior teachers and Pandits in the Pathasalas should adopt the practice followed in Colleges and Universities of delivering general lectures at the commencement or at the end of a new topic, expounding the general lectures at the commencement or at the end of a new topic, expounding the general nature of the subject together with a historical and comparative account. Such lectures would illumine the texts to be studied and provide the guiding thread to followthe intricate details. The adoption of this practice would no doubt mean a new departure in the mode of instruction in the Pathasalas. It might also entail some extra labour for the Pandits, as they would have to prepare notes for the lectures. But the experiment deserves to be tried in the Pathasalas. What portion of the time available should be devoted to the analytical study of the texts and what portion to the general lectures is a matter of detail, and can be modified in the light of experience. In addition to such general lectures, periodic tests--oral and written--must be instituted. Students should be encouraged to write essays periodically and their work should be adjudged. For this purpose, the routine timetable of the Pathasalas should provide for regular period for composition work. Discussions and debates may be initiated in senior classes. Debates (Sastratha or Vakyartha) were quite an established feature of traditional learning, and they should be revived and encouraged. 40. The written examination system at the end of a course of study, on the result of which degrees are awarded, has now been adopted by the Pathasalas almost universsally. This is somewhat of an innovation in the traditional system. Most of the witnesses, who had intimate experience of the examination system, stated quite categorically that is resulted in considerable deterioration of Sastraic learning. The products of the modern Pathasalas cannot be compared with the old giants of traditional schoalrship. Till four or five decades ago, deep scholarship of the Sastras, combined with ability to debate in the Sabha or concourse of Pandits, was common in most parts of the country. A few representatives, the remnants of the old order, are still to be found here and there as rare specimens. 41. This deterioration has occurred because, in the written examinations leading to the highest degrees of the traditional system, only small portions of texts are prescribed, and necessarily so. The candidates can pass, if they obtain the minimum pass marks (about 33 percent), and they very soon forget what little they had got up for the examination. The examination system has many loopholes, and the high marks obtained by a student cannot be always regarded as a sure indication of his mastery over the subject. To remedy this state of things, the Commission recommends that the higher examinations for the Pathasala-system should be in two equal parts, written and oral, 50percent of the total marks being set apart for the viva voce examination. The question at the viva voce need not be confined to the prescribed texts, and may be enlarged into a regular Sastrartha in traditional style conducted by a large panel of Pandits and in an open assembly (Sadas or Sabha). It may be mentioned that for the higher Doctorate of the University of Paris, one has to face a pubic examination of this type. 42. We would, in this connection, commend the practice adopted by the Sanga Veda Vidyalaya of Banaras. This is a unique institution in some respects. Realising the defects of the examination system, it awards its own degrees on the result of viva vocetests and debates conducted by renowned scholars in various subjects in an open assembly. Such tests are quite in the spirit of the old tradition, and bring out the best in the scholar. 43. In the South, as well as in some centres in the North, some private endowments, and till recently some of the States, organised such gatherings of Pandits. Now, owing to the changed circumstances, all this has been or is being discontinued. Some ofthe religious heads, particularly in the South, still hold such learned assemblies every year. This should become more popular. We, therefore, suggest the institution of Regional Associations (official and non-official bodies of Sanskrit scholars and patrons) which should organise from time to time such open debates in the various Sastras. Inducements of prize-money and presents should be offered to the participants who would be adjudged to be meritorious. Non official bodies and patrons can play agreat part in this regard. We are sure that a great impetus will be given to the traditional type of Sastraic scholarship by the revival and incorporation of the oral Sastrartha method in the Higher Sanskrit Examinations. CHAPTER VII SANSKRIT RESEARCH Introducation I. Research implies, in essence, the critical and scientific inquiry and the seeking of all possible evidence that might throw light on the real meaning of a text, a fact, a concept, a school of thought, etc. It is not possible to believe that the great intellects and creative writers of old could have produced their expositions and dialectic and built up their systems without the exercise of their critical faculty or zest for original investigation. In its earlises phase, Sanskrit literature shows careful recording of authors, metres and subject-matter of hymns; and compilations of various types of indices, which are now regarded as very useful instruments of research, have been produced. In later times, too, the great commentators evinced keen critical acumen while discussing controversial questions. Instances can be cited from Abhinavagupta, Jayaratha and Anandanubhava to show that they have searched for manuscripts, compared passages and dealth with interpolations, variants, etc. In fact, the idea of Pathabheda and Praksepa (readings and interpolations) is quite indigenous, and was known to Indian scholarship long before the Western Orientalist began to speak of it. 2. The phase calle dResearch, by it svery radical meaning, signigies the process of recovery. Applied to cultural heritage it is always an adjunct of a renascence in the course of a country's history, when it enters upon a new era of creative activity. Such an activity not only derives inspiration from the past, but also works in the atmosphere of a new quickening of life in the political and public affairs of the counrty. It was as a result of this continuous process of quickening of life which happened in different parts of India, whenever different dynasties gained a dominance there and ensured a regime of peace and prosperity, that art and letters flourished in different centres and contributed to the renewal of intellcetual activity and enrichment of literature. 3. It was such a fresh quickening of the intellect of the Nation which occurred when it came into contact with the Modern West. It was not only as if Europe discovered Sanskrit for herself through Sir William Jones; it was a discovery for Indian herself yet one more of those upsurges of India's own consciousness in which she was making a renewed search for her own soul, her moorings and her traditions. In the centuries preceding the advent of the Europeans on the Indian soil, the country had been passing through a comparatively long spell of alien rule which had, in some of its iconoclastic manifestations, given a rude shake-up to the cultural activities of the Nation. Sanskrit literature was developing the minutiae of highly specialised lines and moving along narrow lanes and grooves. The development in formal logic, refinements of definitions, etc., were only the expression of the mental slant itself in that direction which was taking place. The fundamentals and the formative ideologies were lost sight of ; ancientand basic texts had slipped away, and the later tracts had begun to loom large. Artificiality, exaggeration, excesses and aberrations had become normal features of thought and expression. The higher minds and the better creative talents had been steadily going over to the local languages. The rolling current of Sanskrit had gradually thinned into a trickle or become cut up into stagnant pools. 4. Except in some parts and centres of India where the tradition Pathasalas and Pandit-techers were confined to the teaching of a few minor texts. It was at this juncture that, as a by-product of the British contact and the British savants 'discover' Sanskrit, and they and other European and American orientalists, and in their wake, the Indian scholars, started on their quest of Sanskrit and India's past. The story of the recovery of India's past, the exposure of the monuments and the bringing to light of rare ancient Sanskrit works lying buried in manuscripts, the deciphering of ols scripts on coin, plate and stone, chronological equations and the placing of Indian history in the frame-work of world history, the tracing of the trans-continental contacts and influences of India--all this, too familiar today, if set forth in its true graphic details, would read like romance, though not so exciting as the unravelling of the scripts and civilizations of the Middle East which does not possess that great mass of monumental or literary antiquities or survival of tradition which India possesses. This recovery of India's past has been for the world at large the knowledge of one of the oldest and richest civilizations which had plumbed the depths of the Spirit, without neglecting the material goods which added zest to life. And, in this recovery, Indian Sanskritists have played their part along with Western Orientalists. In fact, to begin with, it was with the aid of traditional Indian scholars that the WesternOrientalists started collecting manuscripts or reading, editing and translating Sanskrit classics. After the three modern Universities were founded in India, Sanskrit study came to be prvided for in the modern schools and colleges, and the Government started taking interest in archacology, manuscript collection, etc. Indian Research came to register rapid progress. A brief survey of this has already been given in Chapter II, and several details of Research have also ben incidentally touched upon in the Review of the Present Situation (Chapter I I I). To afford a proper perspective to Research as such has vital bearing on the deepening and vitalising of Sanskrit study, and to dispel the notion that it is something totally Western and opposed to the indigenous conception of study and scholarship 5. The last-mentioned notion is held by some, both pandits others. Even among those who have received modern education, there are some who feely ultra-orthodox and consider research a needless indulgence and even disruptive in effect. While the benefits offered by research and the advantages accruing from the excellent editions or from the unearthing of new facts are all welcomed and used, there is a sort of derision, as if those engaged in research are not scholars at all. It must be pointed out that this whole attitude, which has been responsible for the difference between Pandits and Research Scholars, is wrong, and is most injurious to the proper maintenance and growth of Sanskrit studies at the present stage. We can take Research only at its best, just as we can take Traditional Learning only at its best. No literary research can be made without a critical appreciation of its background, the views criticised or established therein and the overall contribution which it has made to its own school in particular and to Indian thought in general. How can it be considered foreign to the mastery of a text, if the Prima facie view is traced to its source and read in its original, if the authors criticised or drawn upon for support are identifiedand understood? How is it not germane to the actual subject-matter of one's study, if a text, if the Prima facie view is traced to its correct readings and recensions? It is clear that the study of the text and the research related to it are complementary; they are two phases of the same knowledge : one, the conservative and the static, forms the basis; and the other, the analytical and dynamic, is the creative aspect. The former is Prakasa, the latter Vimarsa, and the two together are responsible for the consolidation and development of knowledge. 6. There is the criticism that in the lower reaches, Research descends to dry discussion of dates, identification of persons and works, and indexing and other mechanics. It should be borne in mind that each discipline evolves it sown norms and methods:and at each level, the work done is to be thorough. Each such eork, again, has to be judged on its own merit, and also in relation to the objective it is intended to serve. After this is granted, one may ask if indexes, etc., are useless, and if those who have mastered the texts do not need them. They may not need them for some texts they had mastered, but they may have to use other texts also. Research as such has no inherent tendency to deteriorate, any more than traditional textual learning. 7. A sense of proportion is, however, necessary here as elsewhere. It should also be borne in mind that, though the search for truth is the agreed objective, Indian scholars must not merely echo Western Orientalists. Each country studies another country's culture with its own mental background and intellectual tradtion; and it is too much to expect that, leaving sundry objective facts, in the more important realms of interpretations of ideas and institutions, Indian scholars should say only what British and European scholars used to say. For Indians, the subject of their researches forms part of a living culture, the component concepts of which are to be understood in the light in which they are significant to them. Indian Indology and Sanskrit Research can, therefore, function, as a creative part of the scholarly life of the nation, only in this way. Fortunately, in the West itself, a change of attitude is becoming evident in respect of the understanding of Indian thought. For instance, Professor Renou, concluding his recent review of Indian Studies, says: "What the Western Indologist needs to do is to renounce his Aristotelian corms of thought which have become so natural to him that he finds it difficult to believe they are not valid for everybody. He must resolutely unlearn a part of what European humanism has bequeathed to him--the heritage of the Mediterranean World which he vain-gloriously translated into universal terms". 8. It would be clear from the foregoing that the new creative study of Sanskrit was bound up with the spirit of research. In this, the traditional Pandits not to remain content the traditional Pandits not to remain content with mastering particular texts; they should go beyond and make their own original contribution. Keen minds as they are, the Pandits would find no difficulty in imbibing the modern methods of criticism and comparison. In fact, with the European Orientalists of the first generation, there was always 'the Pandit at the elbow'. Many of the early Indian research scholars have been Pandits, and among the more recent Sanskritists also, there have been examples like Mm.Dr.Ganganatha Jha in the North and Mm.Professor S.Kuppuswami Sastri in the South, in whom the traditional Pandit and the modern scholar coalesced. Towards this send, we have already made some recommendations in the Chapter on Sanskrit Education. 9. In some Universities, there now exists provision for Advanced Research work for those trained on the Pandit lines. In Madras, the Pandits can go in for a research Degree and are given Research Scholarships for that purpose by the University and the Government. In Banaras Hindu University, there are the post-Acharya degrees called Vachaspati and Chakravarti. Again, in some Univerities like Madras, where special Research Departments exist. Pandits have regularly been taken on the Research Staff.Research Institutes in the country also employ Pandits, and recet research projects, like the New Sanskrit Dictionary of the Deccan College Research Institute, have recruited Pandits to a large extent. All this should introduce Pandits increasingly toResearch. The University Grants Commisssion has accepted the principle of recognising affiliated colleges for carrying on research work; and this facility should be extended also to those Oriental Colleges which are affiliated to a University examination, so that both the Staff of the Sanskrit Colleges and their brighter products might make their institutions active centres of advanced study. Further, one of the reasons why we recommend the formation of a Sanskrit University is to creat a venue and facilities for advanced research work by the Pandits. There should also be Research Journals in Sanskrit in which, besides the contributions of the Pandits themselves, summaries of the research done through the medium of English and other languages could be published. In this connection, we would liketo refer to the view placed before us that as Sanskrit was understood by all scholars working on Sanskrit subjects, the Critical Apparatus, Introducations, etc., in all research works and editions might be written in Sanskrit, or at least Sanskrit resumes of these might be included in those works, so that the Pandits too would be able to get access to that information. 10. It may be added that, even when some of the Pathasalas of the traditional style were founded, such as the Madras Sanskrit Cokkege, the founders had in view the object of introducing the Pandits to modern methods of historical and comparative study and evaluation; and one finds that, at the beginning, regular lectures were delivered with a view to fulfilling this aim. When the Government of West Bengal took up the question of reorganising the Tol system, they added a big Post-graduate Research Department to the Government sanskrit College. That Department now enbles Pandits and Professors to come together, and offers to the former opportunities for critical investigation and publication. In fact, there are lines of research intimately related to the Sastra and their texts, in which the Pandits can do excellent work, and help to fill the gap in the work of other research sholars. Editing of, very recondite Sastraic texts on critical lines, with collations of manuscripts, etc., is the first of these. Secondly, the technique and terminology of the Sastra-expositions are very difficult, and easier expositions need to be attemted today. A Concordance of and Commentary on the Sastraic Terminology itself is a useful piece of work which needs to be done. Such a work is bound to prove a boon to those who have to read Sastraic texts by themselves. 11. A note of warning, however, requires to be sounded in this connection. It is our experience that the rigour of the scientific method is something to which the average Pandits does not submit himself easily or with enthusiasm. This leads to a dilution of the standard, and when persisted in, brings into being a body of pseudo-scientific workers and scholars. Nominal conformity to research-methods and the employment of the tools of research to bolster up ideas which are inherently unscientific or unsustainable would be the abuse of Research. While it is to be urged that Indian Indology must not bindly imitate its Western counterpart, it would be a negation of the objective of Research if critival acumen, anxiety for accuracy, patience and industry, examination of data, avoidance of the tendency to take things for granted, sobriety and fairness of judgment--all these were allowed to be blurred or brushed aside by traditional complacency, chauvinistic philosophical expansiveness in which all hard little facts gets submerged and effusive and abstract generalisations are indulged in. Universities 12. As matters stand, it is the Universities which now attract the better type of students. It is, therefore, necessary to afford ample facilities in the Universities for advanced studies in Sanskrit and allied subjects like Indian Philosophy. In theUniversities now, there are two types of set-up in respect of Research: one, in which the Sanskrit Department is both a teaching and Research Department; and the other, in which it is primarily a Research Department, but does some taching. In both these cases, there are University Chairs in Sanskrit. There are, however, still some Universities which have not yet opened a full teaching Department in Sanskrit, and somewhere the University as such does not have a Sanskrit Chair. While teaching and research should go hand in hand, it is desirable that the teaching work is mostly of the post-graduate type; for, otherwise the amount of teaching work may not allow any time for original research. This Commission recommends that there should be in all Universities provision for special study of Sanskrit for B.A. and M.A. degrees, and also that every University should have a SanskritChair, under the direct aegis of which post-graduate Research Work can be carried on by students, and the professor and other members of the staff can also do their own research work. Requirements and Facilities 13. It is, however, not enough if University Departments for Sanskrit are opened and Chairs founded for promoting specially the work of research. Other things are also required. Those in charge of these Departments must themselves be research scholarsof standing, and proficient in methods of research and capable of and enthusiastic about training younger men in their lines. An aptitude for research or a true research mentality is not a common virtue. The Professor in charge should not only possess this virtue himself, but he should also be able to discover students possessing it. If the Professor has no flair for research, his supervision becomes nominal and perfunctory. 14. Research implies advancement over existing knowledge, the discovery of something hitherto unknown. It is ajnata-jnapaka; with this in view, a suitable subject should be chosen for Research. Below we have dealt with a number of neglected subjects.Similarly, even in well-known field, there are several aspects still requiring edification. Such research alone should be undertaken, as would, when completed, constitute a distinct contribution to particular branch of knowledge. For this, a complete Bibliography of work already done on the subject or on related question should first be prepared. The Library of the Department should be well-equipped for Research. The necessary Research Journals should all be there. It is in these journals that current knowledge that is growing regularly is found, and no research scholar can afford not to keep in toudh with them. The Library should also possess several publications of reference-value like concordances, indexes, histories of different branches, etc. The latest Research Publications should be secured, and necessary allotments should be available for this. Many of our Library Collections fail to keep themselves up to date in this respect. All University Libraries or Languages Departments should also have a collection of Manuscripts, though this might not be necessary where there was a separate Manuscript Library nearby. As stated in the Chapter on Manuscripts, it would be better if all the University Libraries in India were equipped with microfilming apparatus and readers, for most foreign Libraries now send materials on films and similarly like to have film-copies from Indian collections. 15. Methodology is an essential part of Research and there should be no dilution in respect of it. By constant work in this line, a capacity for sober judgment develops naturally. Sober judgment and a sense of proportaion are two great virtues, which form, as it were, the blessings that Research besttows on scholars. While over-caution may notbe wrong at all. over-statement and anxiety to insert unsupported surmises or unverified data necessarily detract from the value of the work. Dogmatic assertions, sweeping generalisations and hasty conclusions should be avoided. Research is a discipline, and the scholarly virtues it inculcates are more important than the reputation or degree one secures by means of it. While industry is commendable and more output welcome, the ideal, as between quantity and quality, should always be quality. 16. It is necessary to emphasise all this because one finds today that the high standard of work and conduct expected of a research scholar is unfortunately not fully appreciated and maintained. On account of the value which employing authorities are inclined to attach to research-record and the general reputation which accrues toone as a research scholar and writer, there is a tendency on the part of younger scholars to write a number of short papers, sometimes just a note or the putting together of some extracts from manuscripts or a list of authors and works cited, and thereby try to establish themselves as research workers. Plagiarism is a pernicious evil and must be eradicated. Strictness in the valuationof thesis and detailed reviews and criticism would serve to raise the standard of research work. There are some Research Journals which are unfortunately not sufficiently vigilant in the matter of accepting or publishing articles. If they are strict, there is boung tobe a substantial gain in the standards. Where there is a full Department, and more than one scholar is working, the parctice of having research papers or the under preparation discussed regularly, can be fruitfully adopted. Research Scholarships and Fellowships 17. In most of the Universities there is a provision for the award to the more promising graduates of scholarships which would enable them to do advanced Research for a few years and thus obtain Post-graduate Research Degrees. The amount, duration and number of such studentships or scholarships vary form place to place. Recently the Government of India have been awarding a certain number of scholarships in Humanaities to students, who are selsected on an all-India basis and who are allowed to eork in different University Grants Commission is also awarding some Research Scholarships. With reference to all these, we may make a few observations. Each University Sanskrit Department should have, year after year, Research Scholarships made available to its students. The Research Scholarships awarded by the Universities should not be as low as Rs.50 or Rs.60, as is sometimes the case. There is usually great discrepency between a normal University Research Scholarship and a Government Humanities Scholarship; and this dis crepancy often has an adverse effect upon the young men working together in the same University.Some Universities, where important work in Sanskrit is being carried on, have never been assigned any scholarhips since this scheme of Government Humanities Scholarships was started. The method of selection adopted in connection with that scneme leavesmuch to be desired. 18. Both the Government Humanities Scholarships and the new University Grants Commission Scholarships are awarded only to fresh graduates. Really speaking, there is a greater need for Fellowships for those who have already done some research work, haveproduced a thesis for their first Post-graduate Research Degree, and have no facility to continue their research interests. At the Degree stage, the students does not possess enoug background to do any solid work. He has only mastered his presribed examination texts. During the two or three years of his first post-graduate work, he gets the initiation into Research; his first Post-graduate Research Degree is more or less the mark of his having become qualitied to do higher research work. If at thatstage, he is not given any facility to persevere for a further term on a higher and more difficult type of research work, he lapses into indifference. He takes to the pure teaching line, and even develops an aversion to research. All may not be desirous of persevering in the research line, but many young men are. These interested scholars would be the feeders for the next generation of research workers. They should, therefore, be picked up and given fresh scholarships to continue their research work. We would suggest the following scheme: Primary Post-gradute Research Studentships should be awarded by each University. The University Grants Commission's awards, which would be of a higher value, should be given as Continuation Scholarships to those who have already put in two or three years of research studentship. The Humanities Scholarships of the Ministry of Education, which would be of a still higher value, should be reserved for adult-scholars; or for teachers in affiliated colleges, who want to take Research-leave ; or even for retired men, who may have on hand some research-themes and materials, which , for lack of adequate assistance, they are not able properly to work out. Post-Graduate Research Work 19. As we have already said, the fresh graduate has to learn much before he can be put to Research. For instance, he has to be taught the very rudiments of textual criticism. He has no over-all idea of the field, and does not know what work has been in a particular field what gap there still remains, and what original material is available to fill in that gap. No subject of inquiry has suggested itself to him and he does not even know a particular Sastra (or other more general subjects) in which he would like to or could work. Therefore, it would be better if, as a first stage of initiation in Research, which could lead to the first Post-graduate Research Degree, Sanskrit students undertook the preparation of a critical edition of an important unpublished work, which should be based on the collation of a number of manuscripts and which should be accompanied by a critical study of that woek and evaluation of its contribution. In the course of this typeof work, the young schoar gets introduced to many of the literary and textual problems and the methods of scientific research to be applied to their study and treatment. In preparing an Introduction to this edition, the student learns the lines on which critical evaluation, based on comparative study, can be made. From such work, he could go to the more difficult work of an interpretative type, which would lead to a Higher Research Degree, andfor dealing with which he would require a certain maturity. For this kind of interpretative work, he should select a school of thought or a branch of literary development. Even in the case of those students who are interested in a specific philosophical system, the initial piece of research work be based on a specific unpublished or not adequately analysed Sastras text. This can be studied in respect of its own contents and in relation to its schools and the other schools as well. Larger interpretative thesis may come at the next stage. Adjudication and Award of Degrees 20. At present different Universities have different research degrees, different cadres, and different conventions and precodeures to have the research thesis valued. In some Universitites, there is only one degree, Ph.D. or D.Litt.; in some, both these degree obtain as lowere and higher distinctions; in some others again (as in Madras), there are three graded degrees--M.Litt., Ph.D., and D.Litt. As regards the examinations for these research degrees , some universities require only a thesis to be submitted; some have a stiff examination of three parts ; a thesis, two wriiten tests, and one viva voce; the viva voce alone is found as an additional test in some Universities. Regarding referees also, diverse practices are in vogue. Many Universities have the guiding Professor as an internal referee; some have no internal referee. Some Universities require only two referees including the Professor under whom the candidate has worked. Some require aunanimous recommendation, others award degrees on a majority report. All these anomalies should be removed forthwith, and uniform research degree standards introduced in all Universities. The ideal should be that, while a high standard should prevail and no loophole should be given for malpractice or for a soft degree, no needless hardship should be imposed on the candidate. We understand that according to a resolution of the University Grants Commission, there will be only one uniform research degree all over country. However, from what we have said above, it will be seen that there is a case for a preliminary lower research degree. This may not be designated as Doctorate. The term 'Doctor' should apply to only one type of scholar. Our suggestion is that M.Litt. be adopted as the first research degree and that, for this as well as a viva voce. Additional written tests may be dispensed with, and the viva voce may be made a sufficiently detailed examination. Foreign Examiners and Foreign Degrees 21. In some Universities there is the practive of appointing, for the higher research degree, referees from foreign countries. Indian research is part of the research going on all over the world, and all venues of collaboration and preservation of a world-standard should be sought and maintained. But having foreign referees becomes both a hardship and an anomaly in two ways. Certain Universities have dispensed with the policy of appointing foreign referees, and it appears unfair that, only in some Universities, candidates should be examined by foreign referees. While we have nothing but esteem for our colleagues abroad, many of whom we personally know, we would like to point out certain factors, in the light of which the policy of the Indian Universities in this respect might be revised. A foreign University does not generally appoint any Indian scholar to adjudge a thesis produced under its auspices, even if well-known specialists in the fields concerned are found in Indian. Further, Indian research has advanced considerably sine the time when this pratice of appointing foreign referees was a rule. There are now many reputed Indian scholars in every field, who can be appointed. In several respects, Indian scholarship, particularly in pure Sanskrit studies, displays a volume and variety with which the Western Orientalist is not very familiar. He is also often not familiar with the type of material and its presentation which are required and appreciated in this country. And above all, itdoes not redound to the prestige and honour of this countru that, in the field in which an adequate number of Indian referees are not available. In such cases, foreign experts must certainly be appointed. We would suggest that generally one foreign judge might be appointed along with two Indians draw from the Universities other than that of the candidate. There is a difference of opinion about whether the Professor who guided the candidate should be a member of the Board of Judges. We think thatthe ablition of the sytem of appointing internal referees would lead to improvement of standards and would cause no hardship. Like justice, fair valuation should not only be done but should also appear to be done. 22. This brings us to the question of foreign degrees and the practice of our graduates going abroad fo rfurther study. We have no doubt attained Independence, but that does not mean that we should not continue to appreciate the high academic standards prevailing in foreign Universities. At the same time, it may be well argued that, with a view to raising our own standards, we should now adopt a new policy regarding our students going to foreign Universities. There are of course subjects in whichspecialisation is possible only in some foreign centres. Even in Indology, there are lines, such as Comparative Philosophy, for which one has to go abroad for gaining a better grounding. But, in pure Sanskrit studies, it appears that it is needless for our students to go to foreign Universities. While the Indian public is becoming incressingly critical of our young man going to a foreign University to qualify themselves in Sanskrit, some foreign Proffessor themselves now agree that student who come to them should choose some line in which thay could gain something new and additional , something which they were not likely to get in India. The exaggerated value attached by the authorities here to foreign taining and degree has sometimes unhappy repercussions on those who are erudite scholars in Sanskrit, but have no foreign degree to their credit. 23. We are not minimising the need for contacts with foreign Sanskritists. What we wish to suggest is that Indian Sanskritists should go to foreign countries as scholars and not as students seeking degrees. They might go there after taking their Research Degrees here to gain experience by visiting foreign centres, and through discussions with foreign Professors. Or they might spend a period there as Exchange Teachers, giving something and taking something. Or they might go there to study and collect material, come back to their own Universities, work upon that material, and submit their theses for the degree. The last-mentioned practice is generally adopted by those of the foreign students who come to our country on scholarships and grants. The Commission would, however, like to stress the advantages of the first king of arangement, namely, of scholars of some advanced standard and equipment going to foreign countries as proper representative of Indian scholarships and participating in a programme of give-and -take on wqual footing. Subjects for Research 24. There is much improvement needed in respect of the subject taken up for research. The Commission found during its tours and from the replies to its Questionnaire that there was a tendency to select easy subjects or to go over familiar ground again. Among the many Sastras Vednata and Alamkara are most frequently chosen. There is less attention paid to the earlier and more important phases of the growth of the different Sastras, about which material is meagre, and not readily available. As against this, the Western Sanskritist usually occupies himself with some unexplred field. That is why his work is more original and more significant. Vedic research is on the whole very much neglected, particularly when one considers what has been done in the West. On Vedic Ritual and the Kalpa-Sutras, there ia very little work done by Indian scholars. Indo-European Linguistics is again another subject in which the Indian scholarship is very much behind the European. There is much evidence of interest in Modern Indo-Aryan, but, we fear, the teaching personnel for Indo-European and Old Indo-Aryan is not being trained in adequate numbers now. The ample materials of the Puranas are still to be exploited in full. A lot of confusion still exists in respect of the varied contents of most of the Purana-texts, which all need to be completely edited afresh in a critical manner, after a full survey of their manuscripts and recensions. With Puranas goes the equally large corpus of texts of Agama, Tantra and similar Samhita literature. As pointed out elsewhere, Navya-Nyaya and certain aspects of Vyakarana offer subjects of semantic and symbolic logic in which there are significant new developments in the West. Indian Psychology and Ethics are special branches, to which, again further attention needs to be directed. 25. Various problems relating to Buddhism and Jainism need to be tackled afresh un the light of the new material that is being brought to light. Indian Sociology has to be exponded properly so that today, when the nation is passing through great changes there may be a better understanding of the ideology underlying the traditional patterns. Folk Culture, as reflected in Sanskrit literature, is another attractive subject. In Alamkara, General Aesthetics requires further investigation. In Literature proper, a Dictionary of Sanskrit Literature is a desideratum. Forms and phases of Sanskrit as a medium of expression, such as Vedic, epic, narrative, epigraphical, Buddhistic, Jaina, literary, philosophical, technical and so on, need to be examined from the points of view of grammar, diction, vocabularly, etc. Similarly, the study of Sanskrit in relation to the Modern Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian and pre-Dravidian languages forms yet another line demanding further attention. A witness syggested the study of Sanskrit words, their forms and meanings, as they are current in the various Modern Indian Languages.26. In the domain of Art, work in Natya, Sangita, and Silpa, including Archtecture, Iconography and Painting, has been almost negligible. All the scientific subjects--Ayur-veda, Jyotsa, Ganita--deserve to be taken up, especially by advanced students who have a good grounding in the corrsponding modern science. In applied scientific lines, it might be suggested that studies in Indian Botany, Engineering, etc. should be undertaken, so that there would be a complete account of the History of Ancient Indian Science and Technology. In Astrology, in which great popular interest is evinced, the branch called Nadi or Samhita, the readings of which are marvellous, needs a thorough examination as to its technique. Among themes of wider interest are Sanskrit Epigraphy, Ancient Indian Geography, Niti and Arth-Sastra, Indian Games and Pastimes, Ancient Festivals, and the like. 27. Besides, there are some serious gaps in Indian Research which have to be filled. In the field of Indian Cultural Contacts abroads, Indian work is very deficient; what littel has been done is second- hand, based as it is on the work of the French and Dutch savants. Now that India is free and has diplomatic relation with other countries, Indian scholars should venture forth on original work in the Indian Cultural Contracts with Egypt, the Middle East, Central Asia, Tibet, China and Japan. There is much scope for textual and literary, linguistic and philosophical, and cultural and interpretative work on the inscriptions or manuscripts available in these countries. Avesta and Old Persian are so close to the Veda, but they are not even taught as acomplement to higher Vedic studies in India. Similarly, Tibetan and Chinese are necessary for Buddhistic studies. There should be reared a larger group of Indian scholars knowing these two languages and capable of restoring Sanskrit texts from them. For Vedic Mythology, Archaeology and Chronology, as also for understanding many a legend in the Puranas a study of the antiquities of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor needs to be cultived. Hittite is related to Sanskrit, and, from the point of view of Linguistics as well as of History and Culture, Sanskrit scholars ought to take to its study. 28. It is pity that in such major fields of study. Indian scholars are content of fall beck on the work of the Western savants. Indian Research should become more broad-based. A lead should be given in this respect by the All- India Oriental Conference by opening regular additional Sections devoted to these subjects. We further suggest that a School of Asian Languages be established, to trian up a body of scholars in Far Eastern and South-East Asian Languages, so that these scholars might be able to help the grwoth of Research in these fresh lines. Some of the Universities also must be unabled to provide for the teaching of these Asian languages and thebuilding up of traditions of Research in Extra- Indian studies. Facilites should be afforded for Indian scholars and exploration teams to visit these countries, collect material from these regions first-hand and make their own original contributions tothis branch. There may be difficulty today to bring any manuscripts or archaeological material from these countries; but, with the wealth of duplicate triplicate materials that India possesses, it should be possible to arrange for exchange of materialand to build up in our country a collection of museum and library material for the study contact with ours. Further, interested individual scholars should be enabled to live in these countries for a time to study the material on the spot. The first thing to be doen in this direction is to select some promising young Sanskritists to be sent to some of the European countries, where the museums are full of archaeological collections from these regions and where there are Orientalists and Indologists whohave specialised in these subjects. University Lectureships 29. The institution of special courses of lectures in the Universities yunder an endowment or merely as special Readership or Extension Lectures proved a great stimulus to inbvestigations on specific problems and major themes. Many important Sanskrit Publication of Indian Universities relate to these lectures. Somehow, Endowments or Extension Lectures have now fallen on evil days, and, in the last decade or so, scholars had very few opportunities to avail themselves of this medium for developing the subjects on which they had been working. We think the resuscitation of such lectures by outside scholars, as well as general Honorary Readership Lectures by the Department-members, would be a source of re-energising the Research Activity in the Universities. Seminars, Inter-disciplinary Studies 30. After the Second World War, we have been having more of the type of discussion called Seminar. A Seminar is much smaller than a Conference and more concentrated, because it has a single theme and a select group of participants. We think that therewould be great inprovement both in the quality and in the quantity or our Research Work if such Seminars or compact and concentrated study-groups were made a regular feature of the University Departments and Research Institutions. 31. Another enew line of work which we may usefully adopt from America is the Interdisciplinary Study, where a specific general subject is studied and discussed by scholars belonging to diffent disciplines from different points of view, such as Language, Religion, Sociology, Economics and so on. This is of great help in developing a whole view of a subject. In Sanskrit, there are several subjects which can be tackled like this from the points of view of different Sastras. In connection with more general questions also, such as those pertaining to Indian culture, institutions, phases of though, etc., such an Interdisciplinary Seminar is bound to derive much light from the ideals and ideologies embodied in Sanskrit works. Publications 32. One of the circumstances which acts as a complete damper on Research is the lack of adequate facilities for publiching the result of Research. In the course of our interviews, many research Scholars at different centres deplored this lack of facilities for publication which seemed to be chronic and prevalent everywhere. They gave lists of works prepared or kept ready by themselves and by othere known to them. A few of these works are mantioned here in the foot-note as an indication of the wealthand variety of the work lying in obscurity for lack of facilities for publication. Many Universities have theses approved for Highere Reseach Degrees, which have not yet been taken up for publication. It is gratifying to note that recently the University Grants Commission has evinced interest in theses and has come forward to help the publication of a few selected ones from among them. Similar help should be given also to print the more valuable ones among the older theses. It would be a great loss of reputation for an Indian University if it did not make known the research work done under its auspices. In Europe, the Professors enjoy a certain amount of freedom in respect of publishing their writings, and have regular arrangements with the Oriental Publishing Houses. These business houses not only print and publish, but also publicise their works by regular periodic bulletins. Indian Universities and libraries order these books and the work of foreign scholars thus becomes well known in India. But the case is different so far as the work of Indian scholars is concerned; even the Universities, which publish the works of their research scholars, make no efforts to advertise or make known their proeucations. It is a pity that, even within India, the publications of one area are not easily known or available in another area. It has been our experience that even inportant producations of Indian scholars are not available in the libraries of many foreign Universities. 33. The loss of India is two-fold-in reputation, as well as financial. When Indian research works are not ordered from different centres in India and abroad, the authorities of the Universities and the Government develop an unfavourable attitude towards these publications. Elsewhere, we have suggested that the creation of posts of Cultutal Attaches in the Indian Embassies and Consulates abroad can be of great help in this respect. One of the useful items of work which these officers may do is to arrange exhibitions of Indian books and publicattions of research and lirerary value, and also publicise such books through News-Bulletins among the Universities and the Oriental Book-houses in the respective countries. 34. There are a few good printers and interested publishers in India who are helpful to indologists here; but generally the facilities, business arrangements, and the standard of printing and producation are not satisfactory. Some leading writers of India seek only foreign printers and publishers for their writings printed and published in India, the standard and reputation of Indian Book Business would not improve. At present, most presses do not even have paid proof-readers and rely mostly on the authors. Incresing work of school-texts which go out in tens of thousands has made printers averse to take up scholarly works. The situation in particularly difficult so far as composing work in Sanskrit and in diacritical Roman is concerned. The paper, impression, get-up, etc., are all matters in which our publications need to improve considerably. It would be a pity if standard research publications, which were to remain for long and were to be frequently handled, were printed on paper of poor quality. 35. Publications involving a governmental set-up are often held up for years on account of the red-tape methods. Government Department like those of Archaeology and Epigraphy, State Manuscripts Libraries, Government Sanskrit Colleges, etc., would be able to ensure expenditious publication only if they allowed the authors to make private printing arrangements. Often wven the printed works, catalogues, etc., would not fixed or that the matter was being dealt with at different times in differnt Sections and by different persons. 36. In Madras, Bombay and Banaras, the Commission interiewed representatives of some of the more important publishers of Sanskrit and Indological works as also book-sellers dealing in such works. some of them are doing systematic work. From what we heard from them, it appeared that the libraries in the country were not absorbing Indian books as much as they could. Sanskrit books particularly were not patronised adequately. In the South, we were told by a witness, there were Public Library Authorities and several local libraries aided by Boards and the Education Department, but they did not purchase any Sanskrit books. A high class publisher of Madras, specialising in Sanskrit texts, said that he was ashamed to inform the Commission that his business was being sustained more by foreign custimers than by Indians. The National Library at Calcutta and one selcet Library in the State receive, according to statutory provisions, copies of every book published in the State. In return, it would be legitimate to expect these State Libraries to do a little service to the publisher and the author by bringing the book to the notice of all the libraries in the area. The Commission would like to draw the attention of the Central and the STate Governments to this matter. 37. Recently there has been a growing demand for books on India. Many popular publishers and book-sellers have, therefore, begun to reprint old writings of the Western orientalists, some of which are mere collections of articles put together under new titles. Most of these writings have now really become out of date. Moreover, Indian publishers can get many qualified Indian writers to write afresh on subjects relating to Sanskrit literature, Indian culture, etc. It should be rememnered that, in evey age, classical subjects get a new significance, and fresh works on those subjects are likely to draw out from them new implications for that age. Hence the current demand should be met by publishers by printing newly written books and not by reprinting writings produced at a time when research was still young and many facts had not fully come to light. Foreigners sojourning in India drop into bookshops and look for books on India by Indians, giving a proper insight into the culture and life of the country, and not for what foreigners have said about this country. 38. However, in connection with the reprinting of old works, some exceptions have necessarily to be made. As we have said in another Chapter, there are many standard Sanskrit works and reseach publications, which are not available at all. There should be a selection of these texts, translations, expositions and tools of research like concordances, indexes, etc., which need to be reprinted. There is, for instance, a demand from scholars for the reprinting of the back Volumes of the Epigraphia Indica. We are very much interested in this, because Indian epigraphy. Now, it is easy to reproduce such material by photo-process, and already some useful books have been reprinted or reproduced such material by photo-process, and already firms. Another need relates to the reprinting of a considerable body of Sanskrit texts which are available only in foreign editions or in Roman script. A Good number of Vdic texts come under this class. Devanagari editions of all these ought to be brough out now, and Indian scholars, particularly Pandits, ought to be made more familiar with these texts. Critical Editions 39. The progress which research has witnessed in India during the last half a century has been due in no small measure to some of the great Texts Series published by States, Institutes, Manuscripts Libraries, Publishing Houses and Universities, such as the Kavyamala Series, the Chowkhamba Series, the Princess of Wales Sarasvati Bhavan Series, the Punjab Oriental Series, the Bibliotheca Indica, the Gaekwad's Oriental Series, the Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series, the Singhi Jain Series, the Visveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute Series, the Kashmir Series of Texts and Studies, the Anandashrama Series, the Vanivilas Press Series, the Bibliotheca Sanscrita of Mysore, the Adyar Library Series, and the Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, as also the sanskrit Series which some of the University Departments have been issuing. More recently some of the Research Institutions, Journals, and Sanskrit Parishads have also started serial publication of texts. The Manuscript Libraries have started Bulletins in which shorter texts are edited. After Independece, in some centres, funds have been made available for printing works edited from Manuscripts. 40. All this increased activity in the field of the editing of Sanskrit texts is to be welcomed; but at the samw time, in some cases, worthless or mediocre works published already are re-issued without the knowledge of their having been already in print. Though new manuscripts are available, sometimes locally, no attenmpt is made to collect and collate them for presenting a better text. There is also no critical treatment of the work and the author; even when there is internal edvidence or previouslypublished material bearing on the work or the author, the editors and others connected with the publication are unaware of that evidence or material. It is necessary that a work chosen for editing makes a new contribution in some way, and possesses some value from the point of view of the author, the subject matter or the school of though which it represents. There are heaps of Manuscripts waiting to be worked upon; and when quite a large number of comparatively more important works can be discouvered from among them, it is wasteful to bring out again and again texts of lesser value. It is necessary that this work of editing Sanskrit texts is handled by competent men and after adequate scrutiny and consultation with scholars. It should be remembered that, if once a text was edited and published by some scholar, there would generally be no inclination on the part of another scholar or institution to take it up again for editing, howsoever unsatisfactory its earlier edition mught have been. 41. The enormous number of Sanskrit texts available in manuscripts raises the problem as to how at least a fairly large number of the more significant ones among them could be put into print. The several serial pulications now going on together with what the University Departments and private Research Institutes were bringing out, would prove inadequate to cope up with even a fraction of this big problem. We suggest that an inventory should be prepared of the more important texts lying in the different manuscripts libraries; this inventory should than be circularised to the various Universities and Research Institutions with a recommendation that, in their publication programme, priority be given to the works included in that inventory. After the Congress assumed powere, the Madras Government set apart a sum of money for bringing out a large number of Sanskrit texts. Other State Governments also should make special allotments to the Manuscript Libraries, Research Bodies or University Departments in their respective areas for the publication of rare ancient texts. It has received a very large number of suggestions in this connection from scholars all over the country. It is to be hoped that the Ministry will give effect to its proposal and start the publication of at least some of the more outstanding texts suggested to it. Journals and Digests 42. Though the Research Journals dealing with Sanskrit Studies and Indology which have stood the test of time and have attained a status in the field of research are few, there is, it appears, an adequate number of Research Journals in this country which publish the research work that is being carried on continuously at different centres. Some of these Journals are of poor quality and some are struggling for exitence; many are rather bad in print and get-up. There is no need to multiply research periodicals, when even the exiting ones do not get articles of sufficiently high standard and do not enjoy adequate circulation. Further, most of the Universities and Manuscripts Libraries have now there own Journals, Annuals or Bulletins. 43. Research Journals should improve their standard by screening the articles set to them more strictly. There is also much scope for strngthening the review section which really fulfils an important part of the function of a Journal. Too brief and too soft reviews are as bad as to severe ones; constructive criticism, which is necessary for the growth factor in the matter of reviews. 44. The number of Indian and foreign Research Journals devoted to Orientology is now so great that the material, which is being issued through them, is really too vast and vaired to allow of easy assimilation. In this connection, the Commission would endorse the view which the Madras Centre of the Ramakrishna Math and the Editor of the Vedanta Kesari strssed before it, namely, that the publication of a 'Research Digest', which gave from time to time the cream from all the Research Periodicals, wouldserve a most useful purpose. Some of the Research Journals, which have wide exchange relations, do publish a section called 'Select Comtents of other Periodicals'. But a special 'Research Digest' should aim at presenting to the public, taking a cultured interest in Research, the summary of the most significant contributions in the leaned periodicals published from different countries. A complete view of the contributions included in these periodicals can be had from the Bibliographics, but it is now time that some serious thought isbestowed on this question and some agencies set up for the compilation and issue of Annual Bibliographies. Research Projects 45. The subject of Research works brings us to Research Projects. We are living in an age of plants and projects, and there is the danger that we might get caught up by them, without our having properly weighed the difficulites lying the way to their accomplishment. In the field of Oriental Research, there have been in the West many major undertakings, organsied and carried out successfully through the collaboration of learned societies, scholars and publishing houses. In India too, inspired by these large undertakings of Western Orientalists and agencies, some projects have been undertaken by scholars, committess and institutions. The chief of such projects, which is now nearing completion, is the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata undertaken by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona. The Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, Hoshiarpur, has been working on an Index Verborum of Vedic Literature, a work of equal magnitude. In the South, the chief major undertaking is the New Catalogus Catalogorum of Sanskrit and Allied Works and Authors of the Madras University. The Deccan college Research Institute, Poona, is working on the New Sanskrit Dictionary and Thesaurus on Historical Principles. Inspired by the example of the Mahabharata Edition of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, the Oriental Institute, Baroda, now part of the M.S. University, has recently launched on the project of preparing a Critical Edition of the Ramayaana, on the plan and principles of the Mahabharata work. The Gujarat Vidaya Sabha and B.J. Institute, of Research, Ahmedabad, are working on a similar critical edition of the Bhagavata Purana. The Kasi Raja Turst, founded by the Maharaja of Banaras, has the ambitious project of bringing outcritical editions of the Puranas. The Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute, Madras, has prepared a scheme for a Men of Letters Series for Sanskrit and Prakrit Writers. There are also the projects of the Dharmakosa (Wai) and the Srautakosa (of the Vaidika Sansodhana Mandala, Poona). The K.P.Jayaswal Research Institute, Patna, is publishing a series of important Sanskrit Texts based on Tibetan Manuscripts. The scheme of the History and the Culture of the Indian people, Sponsored by the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, has already made good progress. 46. There have been announcements and also initial arrangenments made for other undertakings of lesser magnitude confined to single shorter works, such as the critical editions of the Harivamsa (Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona), the Vishnu Purana (Mithila Institute Darbhanga), the Dhvanyaloka (at more than one centre), etc. having been given to understand that financial aid can be had from the Central Government only for specific projects, some Institutions have been thinking of different long-term plans. 47. It is, therefore, necessary to consider the whole question of such large-scale undertakings by research institutions in this country at the present stage. Such big undertakings require a big establishment, a large staff an a considerable body of collaborating scholars from distant parts of the country and even from outside, and huge financial resources for the high overall cost of all the above complements of these projects. Even in Europe and Ameriaca, there have been no new undertakings in thefield of Oriental research; the unfinished Pali Dictionary, for example, is virtually langushing. It is not possible to find, in this country, sufficient financial resources to suport too many of such big projects, especially when we expect the Government to support even the normal activities relating to Sanskrit study at lowere and higher levels. The recruitment of adequate qualified staff is not easy, and the plan to enlist the co-operation of scholars from different parts of the country, each one of whom is pre-occupied with his own undertaking, does not work effectively and causes considerable delay and embarassment. Certain schemes undertaken by committees set up for a specific project, such as the scheme foa a new History of India undertaken by the Indian History Congress, have given rise to many diffculties and complications which have now produced almost a standstill in respect of those schemes. 48. The schemes to edit in a critical manner the longer texts like the Epics and the Puranas, which are available in a large number of manuscripts and which show extensive divergences in recensions and readings, become very unwieldy and cannot fuction effectively without adequate resources. Whilr the high academic value of such projects is generally accepted, some scholars have alos expresses the doubt whether so much effort and expense are called for, whether Indian texts can be effecitvely dealt with in this manner, and whether the results produced are really valid or beneficial to the general appreciation of those works among the larger circles of the scholarly and the lay educated public. The enormous number of major works in Sanskrit literature would itself preclude any idea of producing critical editons of all of them on such a scale. It would, therefore, be desirable if, for the sake of wise conservation of our resources, both as regards funds and personnesl, no more large-scale projects were started before the major undertakings already on hand had been completed by the institutions and scholars connected with them. There are after all not many scholars who can spare the time necessary to master the critical apparatus and other materialand to sit at the centre and work on the parts of the projects assigned to them. The few scholars qualified to do this are already in demand in more than one place and in connection with more than one project. In all project-work, there is another inherent difficulty. The larger the number of hands, the greater the anxiety about all of them entering everything with equal amount of care, The head cannot afford to verify and vouch for every single item that has gone into the corpus of the evidence. it has also to be pointed out that such projects requiring huge establishments often compel the scholars responsible for them to occupy themselves more with organsisational and allied matters than with purely academic work. In a sense, this is a loss to Indian scholarship. 49. We think that there could be a greater output of Research in all these fields couvered by the projects, if a big project was broken up into smaller units of circumscribed subjects and several scholars were helped to work up those subjects in their own way, on an individual basis, putting forth their own energy and scholarly equipment. There, is a great need now for incresing the individual output of Research and for avoiding this gravitation towards projects. If enough funds were made availableand adequate hands were employed to carry out the various big projects, which had been already started and which were contemplated, a large number of Sanskrit scholars in the country would be absorbed in them. They would be made into mere fitting in ascheme. There ia also the danger of their originality and initiative being smothered. Other fields of research would be deprived of these workers and the wealth and variety of Indian research would be adversely affected. There is another point. These projects involving collaboration of many scholars and aid from different quarters naturally pre-suppose a number of committees and meetings, which are a drain on the funds as well as on the time and energy of scholars. We would, therefore, suggest that, while Government and other Bodies should help, in all possible ways, the expeditious completion of the major projects now undertaken at the various centres, no new large-scale Projects of Research, involving the setting-up of big establishments, need be undertaken for some years to come. Research Institutes in the Country 50. Apart from the Government and University Departments, which carry on Sanskrit and Indological research, there are many privately organised Research Institutes in the country. The following may be mentioned as the ones, which are better known and which can be regarded as being representative of the different parts of the country: The Kamarup Anusandhan Samiti, Gauhati; the Asiatic Society and the Sanskrit Sahitya Parishad, Calcutta; the Bihar Research Society and the K.P.Jayaswal Research Institute, Patna; the Ganganath Jha Research Institute, Allahabad; the Sarasvati Bhavan of the Government Sanskrit College, Banaras; the Visveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, Hoshiarpur; the Gujarat Vidya Sabha and the B.J. Research Institute, Ahmedabad; the Asiatic Society of Bombay and the Bharatiya Oriental Research Institute, the Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala, Poona; the International Academy of Indian Culture, Nagpur (now at Delhi) ; the Orissa Historical Research Society, Bhuvanshwar; the Andhra Histrocal Research Society, Rajahmundry; the Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute, Madras and the Adyar Library and Research Centre, Adyar; teh Mythic Society Bangalore; the Sarasvati Mahal Libraray, Tanjore; and the Rama Varma Research Institute, Trichur. There are also the Institutes started or sponsored by the several State Governments, such as the Mithila, the Nalanda and the Vaisali Institutes started by the Bihar Government for Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrits respectively; the Rajasthan Puratattva Mandir,Jaipur; the Oriental Institute, Baroda, which is now part of the M.S. University, Baroda; the Scindia Oriental Institute, Ujjain; the Kannada Research Institute, Dharwar; and the Oriental Institute, Mysore. 51. The financial condition of the Government Institutes is naturally better that that of the non-Government Institutes. While some of these latter receive regular Government grants, others are handicapped for lack of funds; some are not properly developed on account of absence of anu support, and their schemes, catalogues, and publications have to remain in cold storage. Their Journals are all delayed in appearance, and also there is much scope for improvement in them. These Institutes are very much understaffed, and, in some places, the staff is employed on very poor pay, and only some devoted honorary workers are heroically carrying on. Some of these non-Government Institutes lear more on the historical side. Some of them, like the Asiatic Societies of Bengal and Bombay and the Sarasvati Bhavan, Banaras, are co-eval with the very beginnings of research in India. 52. As there are already several representaive Research Institutes functioning in different parts of the country, we think that there is no need for the Government to start any new regional Indological Institutes. Instead of that, they should evolve, either through their Indology Committee or through the proposed Central Sanskrit Board, a comprehensive policy of granting subsides to the already existing privately organised Research Institutions in the various regions. Such financial aid sould be given not only for specific projects but also for certain necessities like the library and for other non-recurring items like building, equipment, micro-film apparatus, etc. While reports on their work might be called for from these Institutions and theproper utilisation by them of the grants verified, their autonomy should not be interfered with. It should also be seen that the official red-tape does not hamper the progress of the work of these Institutions, which is already slow. It appeared to us from what we saw that the public also could do very much more for the growth and maintenance of these Institutions. 53. There is one point which we would like to stress in respect of the Government helping these private Institutes. It should be the concern of the Government to see that Sanskrit and Indological Research developed in all parts of India. The englightened public in every region naturally desires to participate in the cultural activities in the country, and the Regional Research Institutes often meet such public desire. It is, therefore, for the Government to see that the Research Institutes are helped to develop in all the regions of the country. The policy of selecting some particular region for Sanskrit and concentrating on helping the Institutes in that region alone would be detrimental to the growth of Sanskrit research in the country at large. It is not always possible for scholars and institutes working at distant centres to manage to attract the attention of the Government. The Government should, therefore, devise ways and means to 'discover' these Institutions functioning in different areas, examine the work which they are doing, and formulate a uniform policy for helping them. 54. The way in which the present Indology Committee of the Ministry of Education is working is of an extremely ad hoc nature. Many people interested in Research do not even know of its existence. it deals with the applications of just a few bodies or individuals who are in the know of things. We understand that this Committee has adopted the policy of helping only 'projects'. What line of work can be called a 'project' and what line of work can be easily determined. Even the normal work of an Institute can be arranged project-wise. Further, this policy would hardly meet the situation in which we found certain parts of the country completely ignored. The enthusiastic workers had laboured and built up, in their respective regions, a net work of cultural units in the form of these Institutions. It would be a pity if they were to suffer from a sense of frustration even under the new set-up. we believe that it will not be an exageration to say that the dispensation of help by the Government to Sanskrit and Indological work carried on in the country has, in recent years, suffered from niggardliness. there has been no adequate appreciation of the Research work done in different centres. The setting up of committees, calling for memoranda, holding of meetings--all this has gone on, registering no appreciable progress, but only producing a feeling of frustration among scholars. A more generous policy and a sympathetic handling of the situation are called for. This Commission desires to make a strong plea to the Government on behalf of these private Institutes and learned Societies for a generois and rationalised system of helf. The Central Institute of Indology 55. Recently we have been frequently hearing of a Central Institute of Indology. The setting up of such a Central Institute was proposed, some years ago, by the All-India Oriental Conference. After Independence, the government have set up several National Institutes of scientific and technological character at different centres in the country. But despite the fact that scholars and conferences have been pressing the matter, the Government have not so far started even one Central Institute for the study of Indian Humanities, particularly ancient Indian History, Philosophy, Literature and Culture. We recommend that such an Institute, for which schemes are already before the Government, be started as early as possible. This Central Institute should not interfere with nor be merely a co-ordinating bureau for University Research Departments and other Research Institutes now functioning in the country. It should supplement the work of these bodies, and have, as its main objective, Research work which is being neglected at present and which can be carried out only with the special facilities such as the Government alone can provide for. In this category comes the work which we have touched upon already, namely, the study of cultures of the countries with which India had contacts in ancient times. the core of this Institute should be the section devoted to Sanskrit, Vedic, Indo-European, and Indian Philosophy and Religion. There should be another Section devoted to Munda, Dravidian and Sino- Tibetan languages and their relation to Sanskrit ; a third devoted to the History and Antiquities of Egypt and the Near East (Hittite and Iranian); a fourth devoted to Central Asia, Nepal, tibet and China; and a fifth devoted to South-East Asian countries(including Indonesia). The Central Manuscripts Survey, which we have recommended, may function with the Sanskrit Section of this Institute. 56. Two other useful lines of work which this Central Institute could undertake would be the publication of an Annual Bibiliography of Indology, and assisting scholars and institutions working in the country by functioning as a central clearance house for the supply of references, information, contacts, copies of manuscripts, etc., from different parts of India as well as from foreign centres. For carrying out its work, this Institute should have on its staff Professors and other classes of Research Scholars. The Institute should devote special attention to the task of traning courses and fellowships. Some of the Fellows might be trained abroad, and, in some cases, the Institute might also arrange to invite specialists from outside. The archaeological missions comprising linguists and literary men, folklorists, students of art, etc., sothat the materials studied or brought might cover all aspects of the culture of these countries. The administrative set-up of this Central Institute of Indology need not detain us here ; it will, of course, have a body of experts to advise and to govern and direct its activities. 57. Onething, however, needs to be emphasised again: The Central Institute of Indology cannot and should not be started without a strong Sanskrit section ; in all respects, Sanskrit should receive due attention here as apprehension that Archaeology, History and other allied subjects would overwhelm and smother Sanskrit and ultimately elbow it out. The Commission wishes to urge upon the Government to see that this will not happen. Co-ordination 58. Reference has already been made to teh need for uniform standards and procedures among the Universities regarding their higher Research done at the Universities and that carried out by private individuals or bodies, certain lines of improvement canbe suggested. There are endless subjects awaiting Research, and the scope for work is, indeed, large. Still there is the undersirable deplication of works and overlaping of effort. Greter co-ordination and the development of an attitude of Adjustmentamong Sanskritists and Indologists would considerably minimise the possibility of duplication. The Inter-University Board issues, from time to time, a Bulletin mentioning subjects taken up for Research in the different universities, but this Bulletin is not sufficiently well-known to teachers and students. A year-to -year inventory of subjects of research in the field of Sanskrit and Indology, which is actually being done or which is being earnestly taken up, should be published and citculated to theUniversities. This inventory should be prepared by the Central Institute after first-hand checking. It might be that some scholars, who had the facilities for getting some valuable material in the form of Manuscripts, etc., would 'corner' work and indulge in 'pegging' and preventing others who had probably more time and energy to do the work on the same subjects more expeditiously. Some scholars are reticent about the work which they are doing or have on their programme, lest some one might forestall them by putting out a 'half-boiled' production on the subject in which they are doing or hoping to do a solid piece of work. If an atmosphere of genuine co-operation was created, the two scholars might avoid duplication and competition by doing the work jointly. Conferences 59. The periodical Conferences in the field on Indology serve a very useful purpose in the matter of such co-ordiantion. By the very mingling of scholars from various Universities and Institutions in different parts of the country, the Conference in the domain if sanskrit and allied subjects is the All-India Oriental Conference dealing with the Humanities, this Conference covers the widest field and has the largest number of Sections. Two other Conference born out of the All-India Oriental Conferenceare the Indian History Congress and the Indian Philosophy congress, both of which meet once a year. There are also the annual meetings of the Linguistic Society of India, the Numismatic Society, and the Museum Association. Of all these, the Oriental Conference is the biggest all-India forum of Indological scholars. It has its own Section covering the subjects of the two separate Congresses, namely, of History and Philosophy. it is a major Conference of the country on the side of the Humanities, and stands on a par with the Indian Science Congress. Yet does not receive from the Government the support and encouragement which the Indian Science congress gets. We would recommend the placing of the All-India Oriental conference on a permanent basis,with adequate financial resources to maintain an office and to put forth some specific work all through the year. 60. There is much scope for the expansion of the work of the Oriental Conference. For instance, to its exising Sections, it can usefully and a further Section devoted to Greater India and Indian Cultural Contacts abroad. The Government should help the Oriental Conference to get foreign scholars to come and participate in this and similar other Sections. The Pandita-Parishad should be made a regular feature of all the Sessions of the Conference. The three-day Session of the Conference should be enlarged into a five-day Session, and the various Sections should thus be enabled to do a larger amount of work by a thorough discussion of the more important papes. Without in any way reducing the popularity of this largely attended Conference, a more rigorous standard should be applied in the matter of the selection of papers. The summaries of papers should be got ready fairly in advance so as to make more serious discussion possible. As the All-India Oriental Conference is the premier forum for Indological studies in this country, and as all scholars, young and old, look up to it for recognition, it certainly acts as a great incentive for work. It also opens up before scholars new avenues of work and brings them into contact with fellow-workers in allied fields. The Conference has thus a vital role to play in the growth of Research and the promotion of enthusiasm for sanskrit studies among the younger scholars. We therefore, suggest that all facilities should be given by the Universities and similar bodies to as many of their scholars as possible to attend its Sessions. 61. by helping the All-India Oriental Conference to develop new Sections related to Asian countries and cultures, the Government would be securing a gain, which would be more than merely academic. In the post-war world, when the countries of Asia have been brought closer to one another and when the means of communication are easier, it is felt that the cultural relations between Indian and the other countries of Asia should be revived. This object can be fulfilled in some measure by periodical Conferences of Asian Orientalists. It would, therefore, be desirable if India took the lead in establishing an All-Asia Forum of ancient cultures. The bonds of learnign are universal, and the bringing to gether of scholars from different Asian countries in a common assembly would go a longway in creating an atmospher of goodwill and fellow-feeling. At different times in human history, peoples have given and parttaken of the best of one another. The sum-total of human knowledge at the present day represents the collective contribution of nations, great and small, dead and living. In this great activity of enhancing the sum-total of human knowledge, the East, especially India, had a large share, and we are rightly pround of it. If, in ancient times, the missionary and commercial enterprise of India reached far-off lands and succeeded in establishing cultural relationships should do so in modern times. The countries of Asia must understand one another, and there is no better place for developing such understanding than a common assembly of the learned, which can evolve a new partnership in the light of the past cultural relations. This is, no doubt, an ambitious scheme, but we suggest that the All-India Oriental Conference, with the active help of the Central and the StateGovernment, should explore the possibilities of creating a wide-spread intellectual comradeship among the oriental scholars of Asia. Prizes 62. Like endowment Lectureships, the institution of prizes would also act as an effective stimulus for substantial Research work. It is gratifying to note that the Sahhitya Akademi is offering a prize of Rs. 5000 for the best expository work bearing ona subject in the field of Sanskrit. The All-India Oriental Conference also should devise ways and means to institute a substantial prize for the most outstanding Indological work done in the course of the two years preceding a Session of the Conference Foundations and Trusts 63. Research Institutions and Universities receive, from time to time, some amount of public benefactions. There are patrons of learning who support individual scholars privately, and,occasionally, some Sanskritistor Philosopher is helped to go abroad on cultural work. But, comparable to teh great Foundations of America, or even to thatof the Tatas and a few others in this country, which help only Science, there are no special Foundations in India to help research and advances studies in Sanskrit, Indian Philosophy, Archaeology, etc. We wish that the great philanthrophists and patrons of culture in the country come forward to create some All-Inida Foundations for advanced studies in Sanskrit and allied subjects. 64. It has been pointed out at the outset that Research or the critical study of our literature, though and history was not something foreign to the spirit of our ancient writers. On the promotion on proper lines of Research in Sanskrit depends to alarge extent the development and consolidation of our cultural heritage. There was a time when scholarly pilgrims from outside came to India to learn. The growth of our studies and the standards that we now develop should be such as would enable Indiato assume, once again, the role of a host-country in the realm of knowledge. There is also another important reason why India should now devote greater attention to Oriental Research. Oriental scholarship in Europe and America is definitely on the wane today; the days of giants and big work in Sanskrit are past. as against this, interest in this branch of knowledge is on the increase in this country. Facilities should, therefore, be provided here, which would enable Indian scholars, to whom this subject is native, to hold the leadership in Sanskrit and Indological studies. 65. it is true that, in modern times, scientific and technological studies should receive, as they actually do, greater State support; but there is no reason why humanistic studies should be treated with apathy and neglect. Today, in the Colleges in India, there is strong scientific and technological bias. Students crowd into these courses without much forethought. Many of these students are definitely not in a position to pursue the study of Science and Technology. Under these circumstances, onewonders whether it would not be desirable to persuade some of them to go in for the Humanities. 66. Sanskrit studies are part of the humanistic studies; they cannot flourish, any more than other branches of the Humanities like Indian Philosophy, in an uncongenial climate. Unless the educational policy is rationalised adn re-oriented by proper selection and introducation of general education courses strong in the Humanities, and unless the student-stream is properly channelised, there is no point in tinkering a little here and a little there and pretending to have helped Sanskrit studies, or, for that matter, the studies pertaining to other languages, literatures Philosophy, etc. We copy the West, but not fully or at its best. In the Massachussets Institute of Technology, here is perhaps the strongest course in the Humanities, and, what is more, there is compulsory provision in that course for the study of non-Western literature. if there is 50 to 60 per cent Technology or specialised studies, there is 40 to 50 per cent of general education comprising Natural Sciences, Social Sciences and the Humanities. The entire General Education Programme in the United States is compulsory. We would, therefore, suggest that, side by side with Science and Technology, the Humanities, and particularly the study of Sanskrit and Indian Philosophy, Historyand Culture, should receive adequate attention in University education, and that, in the Universities and Research Institutionsn, the facilities for Sanskrit and allied Research should be substantially increased on the lines indicated in this chapter. CHAPTER VIII MANUSCRIPTS 1. During its history extending over more than 40000 years, Sanskrit has witnessed a stupendous output of literature. Not only did its literary activity develop and express itself in a very large number of branches of knowledge, but in each branch alsoa prodigious amount of continuous producation of literarture has taken place. it will be no exaggeration to say that, among all ancient languages, Sanskrit excels in the sheer number of the works and authors that have enriched it down the centuries. All this literary material of Sanskrit has been handed down both orally as well as in written form. In the latter form, this vast mass of literature has been preserved in different kinds of materials, like birchbark, palm-leaf and paper, and alos occasionally on cloth, wood and stone. This written mass of literature is interesting not only for the diverse materials it has used but also for the diverse forms of writing it has employed, and the attendant arts of calligraphy and illimination. 2. The primary interest of these written materials lies of course in their being the medium of preservation and perpetuation of teh growth and development of Sanskrit literature and learning in all their manifold branches. The study of Sanskrit has always been closely linked with these manuscripts in which its works have been preserved. In ancient times, as the saying goes, Kosavan Acaryah: He was a greater teacher who had larger collections or a more representative library of manuscripts works. More manuscripts meant access to rare and higher contributions in each special branch of studies; and even in the case of single works, the greater the number of manuscripts, the greater the facility to consult and decide upon the better readings (patha-bhedas) in difficult contexts of the texts and in matters of controversy. While thus each teacher had his own collection of manuscripts, either in his house or in the school or in the temple or religious establishment to which he was attached there were also, in a quasi-public manner, collections belonging to educational establishments, monasteries, temples, colleges and palaces of kings, where leading scholars of the time were patronised, debates were held, and literary activity promoted. Thus the places of preservation of manuscripts were also varied and were spread over different and distant parts of this vast country. 3. During the centuries when India was holding a position of pre-eminence and even of leadership in the field of intellectual activity and spiritual culture, Indian literature as enshrined in the manuscripts was taken by religious teacher and scholarsto countries ouside the borders of India, for preservation, transliteration )if necessary) and translation into the local languages. It is well known that the excavations in Central Asia have unearthed fragments of Sanskrit literature of great significance to the early history of its growth, that works of Indian fable literature, mathematics and medicine have been translated into the languages of the Middle East, that quite a number of teh Indian classics have been taken to the countries of South-EastAsia where they have formed the basis of versions in teh local languages, and that a considerable mass of Sanskrit literature, in the branches of Buddhism and Indian Philosophy, exists in Tibetan and Chinese translations, though in India itslef the Sanskrit originals of a good many of these the Sanskrit originals of a good many of these texts are no longer extant. 4. The recovery of India's past rests not merely on monuments and documents in stone, in the shape of architecture, sculpture and inscriptions, but on these manuscripts also, and to a much greater extent. Realising the importance of manuscripts, pioneers in the field of Indian studies, both in India and abroad, had begun even at the very initial stages to collect and preserve the manuscript material lying scattered all over the country. Chinese Buddhist scholars like Fa Hien, Hiuen Ts'ang and I-Tsingcame to India with the acquistion of Sanskrit manuscripts for study and translation manuscripts relating to sunjects like Logic, Metaphysics, Medicine, Astronomy, Romance and Fables, and Mysticism were very much in demand in the lands of Iran, Iraq andSyria during the Sassanian period and in the early centuries of Islam. In India, rulers and rich men as well as scholars have been building up their collections of manuscripts all along, from the ancient times down about collections of books in Buddhist monasteries and Universities like those of Nalanda and Vikramasila, and in Jaina bhandars or libraries. A distinguished Sannyasin-scholar, Kavindracharya, patronised by the Mogul Emperor Shah Jahan, had a rich library of manuscripts at Banaras, the catalogue of which is available and the manuscriptsfrom which, bearing the owner's name, are now found scattered all over the world. 5. The first collection of Sanskrit manuscripts made in modern times under European auspices goes back to the years 1774-79, when the Chambers Collection, which later became the nucleus of the Berlin Collection, was made in India. During the years 1796-1806, Col. Mackenzie, an Engineer and Surveyor in the employ of the East India Company, made a huge collection in Madras and the Deccan of manuscropts, copies of inscriptions, accounts of local legend and history, plans, maps, etc., which was purchased by the East India Company and later catalogued by H.H.Wilson in 1828. By the middle of the 19th Century, as a result of the discouvery and study of Sanskrit by European scholars and for the pursuit of Sanskrit Research by them, a certain amount of manuscripts relating to Sanskrit literature had been collected and carried to different Universities and libraries in Europe, and many of those manuscripts have been described by European Orientalists in catalogues. This work reacted in creating an interest in India itself in searching and surveying the manuscripts lying in the public and private libraries of India. In 1838, a list was made of the manuscripts in the possession of the College of fort William, Calcutta, and, in 1857, of the collections in Fort St. George, Madras. In 1859, F.Hall prepared a bibilography and index of Sanskrit philosophical works and authors, mainly based on materials available in manuscripts in Banaras Sanskrit College was being serially noticed in the Pandit; and from 1868 onwards, efforts came to be made in different parts of India, in the West, North, East and South, and the Interior, and Reports of Search for or Actual Lists or Catalogues of Manuscripts in private possession and in libraries were produced. Even the outlying countries of Nepal and Ceylon were surveyed for this purpose. Rajendralal Mitra and Haraprasad Sastri from Calcutta wrote on the manuscripts available in Nepal realting to Mahayana Buddhism and allied subjects. Foreign scholars working in India like Kielhorn, Buehler and Peterson, and Indian Pandits and scholars like Radhakrishna and Rajendralal Mitra, Bhagwanlal Indraji, R.G.Bhandarkar and Haraprasad Sastri, interested the Government of the different provinces to undertake the survey ofmanuscript material in their respective regions, to organise collections into well-formed libraries and to prepare and publish reports and catalogues of these foreign collections was being taken in hand. The volume of manuscripts which had come to the knowledge of scholars had grown so much and the venue of their deposit had also become so diverse and farflung towards the end of the century, that one of the eminent orientalists. Who was especially interested in manuscripts and their cataloguing, theGerman Scholar Theodor Aufrecht, undertook to consolidate in an alphabetical register the names of works and authors in the field of Sanskrit literature, giving reference to all the manuscripts of works then known in a very useful compendium, which he called the Catalogus Catalogorum. He issued three volumes of this monumental work between the years 1891-1993, comprising of 1195 pages in all and in this work he indexed 98 lists and catalogues of manuscripts then known to him. The taken to be a landmark in the history of the study of Sanskrit manuscripts. 6. As we have seen in the chapter on Historical Retrospect, research-consciousness had been fast growing in India itself, as a result of which Research Institutes had been founded, Universities had begun to take interest in Sanskrit Research, and the Princely States had founded Sanskrit Colleges; and, in all these places, new collections of Sanskrit manuscripts had come to be formed. Some of the provincial Government had also organised travelling groups of scholars for the search of manuscripts in different centres of sanskrit learning; and the amount of Sanskrit manuscript material which had come to be known in the decades after the appearance of Aufrecht's work had become so enormous that it was necessary to take fresh stock of the situation regarding manuscripts. The need was felt that Aufrecht's work should be revised and brough up-to-date; and, at the suggestion of the late Dr. woolener of the Punjab University, made in the year 1934-35, the Madras Univesity finally undertook, at the end of 1935, the project of recising and making up-to-date Aufrecht's work with the producation of a New Catalogus Catalogorum. De. Woolner had himself urged that the Madras University should take up the work because of the exceptionally numerous and rich collections in the South. 7. When the work was started on a New Catalogus Catalogorum, it came to light that besides the catalogues published since the time of Aufrecht, there was also a considerable number of both public and private collections for which there were no prited catalogues. Special efforts were then made by the Madras University to employ persons and precure hand-written lists of these collections. It was also revealed during the preparatory stages of this work that similar lists could be made of collections ofSanskrit manuscripts built up by eminent private Sanskrit scholars of teh past which were generally lodged with their descendants. The estimates of the additional material worked to eight times that of the material which Aufrecht had impounded in hisCatalogus Catalogorum. Aufrecht had omitted from the scope of his work the entire manuscripts material relating to the Prakrits and to Buddhism and Jainism. There is now no excuse for omitting this at the present stage of the history of Indian Studies, when the New Catalogus Catalogorum had been undertaken. All these fields were intimately related to Sanskrit, and their study went hand in hand with that of both Sanskrit language and literature. The survey made for this purpose of Jain and Buddhist manuscripts by the New Catalogus Catalogorum, together with the survey made for the field of Jainism by the Jina-Ratna-Kosa undertaken by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, showed a further enor,ous quantity of manuscript material. In fact, the Jaina monasteries and their lists required a complete examination, for, they contained many a rare work belonging to general sanskrit literature and to the non-Jaina systems of thought. 8. However, the search for manuscripts and their collection being an ever-growing work, it was necessary for the New Catalogus Catalogorum to draw a line at point of time and fix the number of Catalogues of several further collections have also accumulated after the publication of Volume I of this work. All this information about manuscriptcollections in the country has been gathered by the compiller of the New Catalogus Catalogorum, Dr. V. Raghavan, by correspondence and by casual survey work carried out from time to time. In 1953-54, the Madras University sent him abroad to make a survey of the Sanskrit manuscript collections in Europe, and it was then discovered by him that, in addition to about 20,000 manuscripts already catalogued by European Orientalists, these European libraries contained about 20,000 more, for which no printedcatalogues had been prepared and the existence of the even been known to scholars near or far. Therefore, a survey was made and an inventory of these 20,000 manuscript was prepared by him. 9. The tours of the Sanskrit Commission all over the country afforded the Members an opportunity to make further investigation in respect of these manuscript collections in the country, and it was revealed during the course of their investigation that, in addition to the information collected and unearthed so far for the work of the New Catalogus Catalogorum, there were fresh centres and libraries having collections of manuscripts not so far known to the Indian scholars. Note has been taken of fifty new collections that have come to be known during the itinerary of the Commission. It was also revealed in these tours that, even in the older collections known already, there was a vast amount of further accession of manuscripts. 10. There are still some areas of teh country where manuscripts have not been surveyed in any seiousness either by official agencies, by local institutions, or by private individuals who are interested in this line. Rajasthan, Gujarat and Kathiawad arefich in manuscripts, particularly Jaina collections, many of which have not yet been brought to Nasik and the banks of Upper Godavari has not been properly explored. Assam and Orissa are also virgin feild. The Himachal pradesh needs to be explored carefully, for, information was given to the Commission about the existence of several manuscript collections there. Instances could be multiplied, but it should be pointed out that, even in areas which have already been regularly tapped, there are still many more collections requiring examination, for instance, in Banaras and Kerala. Kerala has been responsible for the enrichment of research in the recent decades by its yield of manuscripts of some very important early classics. A more thorough and intensified combing of Kerala and its Nambudiri houses could still be expected to place in our hands some of the missing masterpieces which research scholars have been anxiously looking forward to come to light. 11. As indicated in Chapter III (The Present Situation), the position regarding the manuscripts in the matter of both preservation and utilisation, in the different Institutions visited by us, was not satisfactory. It was found that both in well-formed libraries and in collection commanding less resources of funds and personnel, the collections made had either been not examined at all, or the lists and catalogues prepared could not be completed or published. In some of the collections we found that even the bundles of manuscripts of different works had not been untied; and, owing to the lack of space as well as of furniture, these manuscripts were all heared together or thrust inside odd places. In some places we found that the work of collection was still going on, and manuscripts were still flowing in. we had further other cases of establishments where local scholars and enthusiasts complained that though they knew of actual places where manuscripts were available, funds were not forthcoming for acquiring them. There were other collections which were kept inaccessible to outside scholars, particularly some of the collections in Palaces, which could not even be seen by this Commission appointed by the Government of India. Some of the Well-established libraries and institutes had the press-copy of the volumes of their catalogues ready, but even these could not be sent for printing for lack of funds. All these condtions were very depressing; and the Commission could not help feeling that, evenin the centres where there wasadequate realisation of the importance of research work, the question of Sanskrit manuscripts was always a much neglected one. 12. Before making any detailed proposals, the Commission wants to stress the basic value which manuscripts have with reference to research work. The manuscripts are no doubt the medium of the preservation of Sanskrit literature, and it is on the basis of these manuscripts that texts have to be eduted and theses have to be prepared. The important texts of Sanskrit classics like the Epics, the great poems and plays, and the outstanding philosophical writings, have,as a direct result of their popularity, come to be handed down in large numbers of manuscripts of the same work with a lot of textual variations. The examination of the available manuscripts of a particular important text taken up for critical edition or study has, therefore, become most essential for research. 13. Secondly, in its long history Sanskrit literature shows a recurrent phenomenon that the appearance of an outstanding author or work always threw into oblivion, or desuetude, the works composed by earlier writers. Well-known examples are there of the plays of the pre-Kalidasa dramatists; the writings of the pre-Sanskara expounders of Vedanta, the early Sanskhya exponents, the grammarians before Bhartrhari; and hosts of other peoms,plays and works of the early times that are refferred to in the later literature which is still fortunately surviving. The recovery of these early authors and their producations can only be made by fresh efforts and a more intensive survey of the manuscript material lying all over the country. That the field could still yield major works was clearly shown by the discovery of Kautilya's Arthasastra and the plays of Bhasa and a very old medical treatise like the kasyapa-Samhita. It is pointed out sometimes that is enoug if only some particular important and missing manuscripts are searched for; but these alone cannot be hunted out. As in the manuscript collections good and indifferent materials are always mixed up, and as it is only in the heaps of these mixed collections that outstanding works have also to be discovered, it is necessary to survey widely and collect all that comes. 14. Thirdly, the question of manuscripts has the most vital bearing on the content and standard of research work now being done in the field of Sanskrit by the Universities and Research Bodies. This question has a vital connection also with the actualreading and learning of Sanskrit in its different branches. In the field of research, owing to the lack of more important early material relating to the formative periods of the different disciplines, research scholars are again and again going over familiar grounds. To take the example of Alankara: discovery has yet to be made of the manuscripts of teh pre-Abhinavagupta commentaries on the Natya-Sastra of Bharata, and of producations of outstanding writers like Bhatta Nayaka and Bhatta Tota. In the field ofpre-Sanskara Vendanta also, works of authors like Upavarsa, Baudhayana, bhartrprapanca, and Sundara Pandya, which are referred to in later texts, have to be searched for. The students and editors, for lack of fresh and significant new materials, content themselves with the material available and familiar, which has been either well worked upon already or which is of comparatively lesser importance. For lack of new manuscripts materials, a good deal of the research work now being done is just in the form of a rechauffe. This desperate state of affairs could be illustrated from every Sastra , such as Nyaya, Vedanta, Ayurveda, Jyotisa, etc. It is well-known that in the curricula of the Sastra studies of the pandits themselves, till research brough forth some of the more important earlier classics, the syllabi in traditional Pathasalas and Tols were confined to the later phases of teh different Sastras; and outstanding works of the earlier formative period, and producations of those who established later school and started new prasthanas, e.g., the Dhvanyaloka in Alankara, the Pracina-Nyaya works, the Prabhakara school of Mimamsa, and the works of Mandana, were neglected. 15. Sometimes even well-intentioned scholars feel that quite a sufficientnumber of manuscripts has been collected and that the hope for a great discouvery has no further chance of fulfilment. This is totally wrong, and the tendency which this reflects,namely, continued complacency or unwillingness to explore and the lack of venturesome spirit, is regrettable. Even in the collections already known, there exists earlier and more important works, which, because of the lack of painstaking examination, have been neglected, in preference to later and inferior works. There is no doubt that fuller and more careful exploitation of the manuscript material available, and more careful search for fresh manuscript material will tone up, enrich and raise the standard of Sanskrit research, of actual teaching now going on and of publication. 16. The discovery of teh lost works of antiquity can extend the bounds of our knowledge, and even alter certain well-established notions about the nature and variety of ancient Indian though and culture. There may yet remain, as indeed indications show, many a work which, if discovered, would bring in the present context a new significance to the pursuit of Sanskrit studies. 17. While in Sanskrit studies, it may legitimately be said that, in the West, the age of the great giants is past, as also the pioneer period when meticulous textual and manuscripts work was undertaken, there are enthusiastic scholars from abroad interested in specific works and branches of study who still come to India and manage to take away with them to countries abroad the manuscripts they want, in smaller or larger quantities. There is noway of stopping this steady flow of Indian manuscripts to outside countries. At the same time, owing to lack of facilities, Indian scholars have been forced to work on a restricted available material only, and in all branches they have always been constrained by circumstances and have never felt like embarking upon exploratory field work. This is true also in the field of manuscripts. There fore the undertaking of the work of manuscripts surveying would adda fresh dimension to our studies and bring more substantial grist to the mill of our research scholars. 18. The Commission was informed that the Central Govenment had an Art Treasures Purchase Committee and that rare manuscrrpts were also purchased now and then by this Committee. The very name of the Committee and the nature of the work it has so far done show that manuscripts which may be valuable only from the artistic point of view--whether calligraphy or illumination--come within its scope. But manuscripts which are artistically noteworthy may not necessarily contents. The objective of this Committee and its operation are such that they cannot meet in any manner the question of manuscripts as literary or intellectual material discussed here by us. From the point of view of quantity also, what this Committee could do for manuscripts would bottouch even the fringe of countless collections of manusripts lying in the country, which might not be distinduished by beautiful calligraphy or valuable miniatures and illuminations, but might possess unique significance for the study of the Indian mind and spirit. 19. It is not as if the question of manuscripts has not been duly emphasised. At least, those who have intimate contact with it have been, during the recent past, time and again, reading papers on the subject, and stressing it continuously in their addresses and communications at Conferences. In some of its Sessions, the All-India Oriental Conference also has passed resolutions calling upon Governments at the Centre and in States to devote their attention to this question of the surveying, safe-guarding, collecting cataloguing of the available manuscripts. The general conditions of neglect which Sanskrit studies are facing all round do also effect the question of the manuscripts. The Pandit families and those in charge of religious institutions,where such collection of manuscripts exist, are all becoming less and interested in the preservation of these and less interested in the preservation of these manuscripts through both ignorance and penury, and though the danger of their being sold to foreign agencies cannot be said to be so grave to-day, there is a real danger of their whole-sale destruction through neglect and through natural agencies (rain and damp, rats and mice and insects, rotting and being wormeaten, and becoming brittle through age). Some of the owners are pathetically attached to these as heirlooms of their families, but have no facilities to maintain them in proper condition. All this imposes a great responsibility up on scholars, institutes and authorities to make a systematic and sustained effort to rectify and improve the situation by devising various methods by which these collections could be surveyed, brought under well-managed libraries, or at least helped to be better preserved in their original places of deposit, and utilised by scholars. 20. It is needless to emphasise that, in the study of the past, the literary and the monumental evidence have to be taken together and co-ordinated in the work of interpretation of our civilisation. Often the monumental evidence can be satisfactorily interpreted only with adequate correlation with literary evidences. While from the scholarly point of view this is so, in actual practice it is found that the literary material is neglected, and though the authorities devote a good deal of attention to archaeological work, they do not think that it is a matter of equal importance to take care of the literary material lying in the manuscripts all over the country. 21. During its tours the Commission found that in many centres in North India, manuscript collections and libraries had been formed with large quantities of manuscripts taken from South India. All these South India manuscripts are written in the South Indian scripts, Grantha, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam, and it cannot be said that there is in these centres an adequate staff conversant with these South Indian scripts to be able to deal with these manuscripts. This difficulty does not afise in South Indian manuscript libraries where the bulk of the North Indian manuscripts on paper that have come in are in Devanagari script, which is known to all Sanskritists in the South. there is, indeed, difficulty in engaging an adequate number of well-paid South Indian Pandits or assistants in these North Indian libraries. Santiniketan had its collection made mostly of South Indian manuscripts which lay there in a condition of neglect, and these had eventually to be transferred to the Adyar Library in Madras. It would be necessary for these North Indian libraries with a large percentage of South Indian manuscripts to employ qualified South Indian hands; they are necessary not only for the preparation of the catalogues but also continuously for looking into these manuscripts whenever scholars enquire for information and extracts, or request collation-work to be done with those manuscripts. 22. The Commission saw, during its inspection of the work in the different manuscript libraries and of the work of editing texts undertaken at different centres, that the availability of more staff and facilities to consult other manuscripts of the texts taken up for editing could improve the work in manuscript libraries. apart from the lack of funds for collecting manuscripts, there were cases where the libraries were woefully under-staffed for the purpose of examination of the manuscripts. The usual practice was to have the manuscripts examined by Pandits and Scribes, and then to have their accession list prepared. If this very first examination of the manuscripts is not made in a conscientious and scientific manner, the wrong idntifications and the incompleteness in the account of the contents of the manuscripts will perists through all the further stages of cataloguing and research. Many of the codices contain more than one work, and quite a good number contain a host of minor works; and unless adequate care is taken at the very stage of primary listing, further stages in the cataloguing will be vitiated and many a work may be missed. 23. In the work of the cataloguing also, there is no uniform method followed, and several of the catalogues are defective in respect of identifications and the references and comparative data presented. An enormous amount of literature is still embedded in the manuscripts, and however speedily our publications come out, a large number of works and authors and information about them would, for a long time to come, continue to be known only from the catalogues of manuscripts. Proper care should, therefore, be taken to see that the catalogue is informative as well as accurate. As numerous catalogues have now been published, it may be necessary, in the opinion of some, to follow the classical method of the descriptive catalogue in which, irrespective of the importance or the much-printed nature of a work, many pages are taken by the reproducation of extracts of the beginnings and the ends of the manuscripts and other detail from them. It has been suggested that nominal ctalogues in tabular form, giving the essential details of the manuscript, its number, name, author, etc. might be adopted, and that more detailed descriptions and critical notes could be given in the Appendix in respect of those manuscripts in the collection which are rare and are of greater value. both methods could be followed if proper economy was slipped over. The question of the edition of the editing of texts by the manuscropt librairies themselves is dealt with in the Chapter on Research. 24. From the foregoing observation, it is clear that, in the main, action should be taken in respect of manuscripts in two spheres, namely, at the Centre and in the States. unless a Central Organisation was set up, a complete survey of the manuscript material all over the country could nt be effectively planned and executed. A central policy backed up by Government authority is necessary, firstly to rouse the consciousness of the public and the owners in respect of the value of these manuscripts treasures, and also to give an officail status to those who would go out on the work of surveying and collecting manuscripts. secondly, there may be a large number of owners of manuscripts who may not be willing to part with their family collection; but in such cases the Government can devise a method by which owners may be helped and given the facilities required to preserve their manuscripts better and make them available for transcription, loan on consultation. numerous witnesses presses before the Commission this idea of a Central Department for the survey and collection of manuscripts. Shri C.D.Deshmukh emphasised the need for a Central Matrka-Saranya; and Shri S.A. Dange, Membere of the Loka-Sabha, pointed out that the manuscript question deserved top priority. the actual institution of a Central Manuscripts Survey was suggested by many witnesses, some of whom gave also details of the organisation and work of this Central Survey. The Central Manuscripts Survey should not interfere with the work which the State Governments and local Institutions are already doing in the field of manuscripts, but, keeping in touch with them, it should do all that is further possible by organising its own region-wise and language-wise branches. There could be four zonal branches, the Eastern, covering Assam, West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa; the Southern, covering Andhra, Madras,kerala and Mysore, the Western, comprising Bombay State (Maharashtra and Gujarat), Madhyapradesh and Rajasthan; and the North-Northwestern, covering Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, and Jammu and Kashmir. The staffs of these branches should be composed of people conversant with the scripts of the regions covered by each, and should comprise those who would do peripatetic search and collection work, and those who would work at the office, recording accession lists and cataloguing the collections. 25. It is not as if there are no individulas or groups, as in the families owming manuscripts, who, out of public spirit or owing to their inability to maintain their collections, are prepared to present them to Government or to Public Institutions. It was brought to the notice of the Commission that sometimes offers were made; but no party or agency was available to receive or to be in a position to take care of and use the collection. A still larger number of cases existed in which a nominal consideration could induce owners to part with their manuscripts. In the sixties of the last century, when the manuscript collection work was about to be taken in hand by Government, it proposed to honour suitably the Pandits and the owners who presented their collections of manuscript for public utilisation. It is well with-in our knowledge that manuscripts are still being collected or purchased for a mere song, either by Indian agents or by foreign scholars themselves, for foreign libraries and institutions. If legislative provision could be made to prevent historical and archaeological material from going out of the country, it is not known why similar provision could not or should not be made to prevent the exportation of literary material. The fact that a good mass of India's manuscript material has been taken out of the country is a sore point with many of our patriotically-minded lovers of Sanskrit; and occasionally resolutions have been moved at the Sessions of the All-India Oriental Conference and other meetings urging upon the Government to move in the matter of recovering these manuscripts and bringing back these "exiles" to our coutry, though no practical way to do this could be suggested. In any case, further drain on our manuscript resources by their being quietly permitted to be taken out of the country must be put a stop to.how ever, both in respect of sale and export, as well as internal collection work, it was poined out by some witnesses that measure of force could be employed only with proper tact and care. For, there were owners perverse enough to run their being done with their manuscripts. A specialist witness, Dr.L.A.Ravi Varma, formerly Curator of the University Manuscripts Library and now of the Palace Mauscripts Library in Trivandrum, actually referred to an owner destroying a previous manuscript before the very eyes of the person who wanted to have it. We also hear of manuscripts being thrown into tanks and rivers rather then being handed over to others. As the Government already has an extensive revenue machinery and educational inspectiorate, as also the newly started Public Relations Department, which reach out to the smallest unit of administration in the villages, adequate steps can now be taken by Government to enlighten the owners about the pubic and cultural value of their manuscript possessions. There are, indeed, many stupid pesrons who do not feel any qualms in throwing out their manuscripts into the river, which appears to be a time-honoured way of relieving oneself of this kind of unwanted burden. Still more foolish persons were reported to have used manuscripts to meet scarcity of fuel. Shri Justice A.S.P.Ayyar of the Madras High Court narrated the story of a Nair servant who produced hot water at short notice by stuffing the oven with the bundles of the palm leaves of th Astanga-Hrdaya. It is said that Dr. Ganganatha Jha discouvered the manuscript of Udyotakara's Nyaya-Varttika from the high window of a Pandit's house where it was stuffed to prevent rain water from splashing inside. Anecdoted of discoveries of manuscripts from bazars, where they had been weighed and sold as waste paper used for packing groceries, were also not wanting. 26. It is not possible for anyone interested in the culture and the heritage of the nation, or for the authorities who owe a duty towards national cultural material, not to pay heed to these distressing facts. The magnitude and the sheer geographical extent over which manuscripts are scattered make it inevitable that, unless the matter is taken up at Central and State levels, this steady tale of destrucation or loss cannot be prevented, and what still remains cannot be conserved andutilised. 27. So far as the Central Office of the proposed Manuscripts Survey is concerned, there should be, first, a periodical Bulletin which would publich lists or brief accounts of the manuscripts surveyed, transcribed, loaned or collected from time to time; secondly, there should be more detailed catalogues of the collections made and examined; and thirdly, a series of critical editions of the most valuable manuscripts discovered from time to time. It is nor necessary that all these works should be carried on only by the members of th staff of the proposed Central Manuscripts Survey; the help and co-operation of outside scholars could also be recruited. Another important work which this Central Manuscripts Survey should do is to acquire film-copiesand photostats of important manuscripts in foreign libraries, and to help as a central clearing house for Indian scholars who want to enquire about manuscripts in Indian and foreign libraries (including those in Nepal), and assist them by procuring loanof copies of manuscripts. 28. The availability of mechanical facilities today for micro-filming manuscripts and preserving them within a short space, and sending them out for use, through micro-film readers, even by scholars at a distance, make the work of manuscript preservation and utilisation more easy than it was sometime back. Micro-filming facilities are now available in almost all foreign libraries. In India, however, these facilities are available only in a very few places. It is sad to reflect that a manuscript canbe obtained by an Indian scholar, much more easily and quickly from a neighbouring Indian library. Library services in this direction should be modernised, and made available in all centres where there are accumulations of manuscript collections. Consistent with rules governing the safety of manuscripts and idemnity against loss, and the exceptionally bad condition in which some manuscirpts may be, libraries should make their manuscripts available to reponsible scholars through accredited official or non-official institutions. No library which did not afford such facilitues, it should be understood, could look forward to financial assistance from the authorities. 29. Coming to the States and manuscript libraries already existing there, either under official or under non-official auspices, the Commission found that, in many cases, the primary work of collecting manuscripts had ceased. The authorities remained content with receiving casual preserntations or making stray purchases. Sometimes the record under the heading of collection work made by libraries showed that the collection was no more than change of hands or administration, of collections going fromone part to another of the same building. Where such changes helped better preservation and access to scholars, they were to be welcomed; otherwise this merely resulted in change of names and numbers and difficulties of tracing manuscripts. Regular field or peripateric work for the search of manuscripts should be undertaken by these Institutions; and it should be norne in mind that an eye should be kept on intense search directed towards the discovery of specific masterpieces which are possibly still hiding. The question of a thorough examination at the very initial stages of accession has already been emphasized. It was found that the staff required for this work was not adequate in many libraries. Similar was the case in respect of accommodation, which was very limited in many manuscript libraries or sections. There were no uniform methods, followed in the libraries, for the use of chemicals or oils for the preservation of manuscript material, or for mending damaged manuscripts. The National Archives in Delhi have systematised process which could be publicised to a greater extent, and the libraries directed or helped to employ these processes or to utilize the services of teh National Archives. The consulation and loaning facilities afforded by amny libraries were alos not up to the mark. Sometimes it took a few days even for scholars working in the same building, to get on loan a manuscript deposited in another block of the building. The reading-room facilities for those who would use the manuscripts within the premises also require to be improved. All manuscript libraries should have a cmplete card-index of their collections both by authors and works . The rarer manuscripts, noteworthy for antiquity, special materials, notewirthy for antiquity, special materials, script, or illumination, should be kept in special show-cases, which of course is doen in some of the better equipped manuscript collections. Generally, the Manuscript Library in any State, as compared to a Museum or even a Record Office, is far less cared for. A properly kept Manuscript Library, with its show-cases of raner exhibits, would form one of the attractions to the citizens and to visitors in a particular locality. 30. Reference has already been made to cataloguing work. We found in our visits to the libraries the following deficiencies or difficulties in respect of catalogue work:-- (1) Some libraries had not at all examined their collections; (2) Some had mere accession lists; and (3) Some had prepared detailed catalogues, and had even made the presscopies of these ready, but could not print them. At the same time, these institutions and libraries engaged themselves in other publiccation work, e.g. of text-editions and expositions. Financial assistance should be given to these libraries and institutions earmarked for examining and cataloguing their manuscripts, and also for printing and publishing the catalogues. It is our feeling that where there is concentration of manuscripts, institutions and libraries should, as far as possible, give priority to cataloguing work over the work of editing texts and publishing studies. The first duty of a library is to make its contents known to the world of scholars. 31. The work of publishing texts can no doubt be carried on very conveniently in a library having manuscript resources. But as we have pointed out in the Chapter on Research, in some libraries this editorial work does not happen to be doen properly and in a critical manner. It would, indeed, be better if such libraries concentrated on cataloguing work and provided facilities for outside scholars to exploit their manuscript material. We should not be understood as saying anything against the texts-series which many manuscript libraries are publishing. On the other hand, it is our firm view that each manuscript library should publish its own series of texts. The anxiety of the Commission is only that these editions should be carefully prepared , so that they attain the exigencies of departmental transfer and promotions and certain other local considerations, it is found in libraries and manuscripts collections that not infrequently persons not specially qualified happen to be in charge of manuscript libraries and their cataloguing and editiorial work. It is necessary, in the interest of the manuscript work, that only properly qualified persons are in charge of manuscript libraries, and that theu do their work eith the help and advice of Committees of scholars interested in various lines of research relating to manuscripts and critical editorial work. CHAPTER IX SANSKRIT UNIVERSITY The idea of a Sanskrit University has already been touched upon, wile dealing with the Pathasala system in the Chapter on Sanskrit Education. This has been very much in the air, and while a large number of our eminent witnesses supported it and thought that it was quite feasible, some others, equally eminent, were opposed to it. Among those who pleaded for a Sanskrit University, some had only hazy notions about it; and diffenrent protagonists had somewhat different conceptions of it. We, therefore, desire to clarify here the conception of a Sanskrit University, and to show how far it is a feasible proposition, and what form it could, according to us, usefully take at the present stage of Sanskrit studies. 2. The idea of a sanskrit University has some history. With a view to encouraging the neglected aspects of education, particularly Sanskrit and Arabic, the Liectenant-Governor of the Punjab and the British Indian Association of the N. W. and U.P. proposed, in 1869, the starting of an Oriental University, side by side with the new Western type of Universities fo rliterature and science. However, this proposal was given effect to by the British authorities only on a smaller scale, and, as a result, an Oriental College, and not a University, came into being in Lahore in 1882. 3. The Banaras Sanskrit College, which was founded in 1791 by Jonathan Duncan, has been functioning as an examining bosy for over a hundred years, and has today, apart from the entire Uttar Pradesh, twenty-three outside centres where candidates appear for it sexaminations. In 1957. a total of 16,567 students sat for its examinations. So far as Uttar pradesh alone is concerned, there are 1014 Pathasalas and 367 institutions of the Acharya grade which are all of college status. Therefore, Dr.Sampurnanand and the Uttar Pradesh Government thought that a cooege of standing like the Banaras Sanskrit college, which was already functioning like a University fo rSanskrit, whcih had the largest number of Sanskrit Departments and Teachers, which possessed one of the richest collections of Sanskrit manuscripts, and which conducted a series of Publications, etc., might well be raised to the status of a University. Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant, the then Chief Minister of Uttar Prades, had publicy announced this decision of his Government in 1952 at the Banaras Session of the Samskrta Visva Parisad. the Varanasi Sanskrit University Act was eventually passed in the U.P. Legislature, and the Statutes and Regulations are now being drafted. After the appointment of a Vice-Chancellor, the University will begin to function in right earnest. As most of the required conditions obtained in respect of this Varanasi Sanskrit University, it would be desirable if the Central Government gave liberal assistance to that University, so that if might develop on proper lines. 4. One other Sanskrit University, which had been conceived on a big scale, was the Somanatha University. It was an idea of the late Vallabhabhai Patel. The Somanatha Trust Deed, executed by the Saurashtra Government on March 15, 1950, with the approval of the Government of India, had, as one of its objects, the setting up of a sanskrit University, research in Sanskrit and Indology, the spreading of Sanskrit learning and the popularisation of Hindu Scriptures. The Saurashtra Government placed the Veraval Palace at the disposal of the Trust for this purpose. But owing to the demise of Sardar Vallabhabhai Patel, the Somanatha University could not take shape, but there came into being the Samskrta Visva Parisad, which has the President of India as its head. This Parisad has reiterated at all ots Sessions that Sanskrit Universities should be started. 5. Like the U.P. Sanskrit examinations conducted by the Sanskrit College, Banaras, in West Bengal, the Government Sanskrit Examination system is vested in a body called the Vangiya Samskrita Siksha Parishad, which also acts as a co-ordinating body for the Tols of that State. The constitution of this Parishad is draw more or less on the lines of a modern affiliating and examining University. 6. The new Andhra Government has founded a University at the renowned All-India Pilgrim centre, Tirupati, with the avowed purpose, set forth in the Preamble to the Bill, of fostering Sanskrit, religion and philosophy, and the arts. The Sri Venkateswara University at Tirupati has started in right earnest as a modern University, but its specific objects and its unique character in respect of Sanskrit and allied studies are yet to be given effect to. 7. Quite recently the Punjab Government has founded the Kurukshetra University, in which provision is to be made for the special pursuit of Sanskrit Studies and Indology. The speeches made on the occasion of its inauguration led to the wide-spread impression that it would be a Sanskrit University. Dr. Rajendra Prasad, who presided at the inaugural ceremony, mentioned the idea of the Sanskrit University and supported it. It remains to be seen how the University is going to implement this part of its objective, namely promoting Sanskrit Studies and Indology. 8. In Puri, another great All-India pilgrim centre, the Sankaracharya, Shri Bharati Tirtha, along with several public workers including some top-ranking Congressmen, worked out a scheme for an Oriental University there; and the Government of Orissa set up a Committee in 1955 to examine that scheme. Shri Radhanath Rath, Minister, Orissa, gave to the Commission a copy of the recommendations of this Committee. 9. We may also briefly notice other efforts by private persons and bodies to found Sanskrit Universities. The late Maharaja of Alwar had announced the gift of a magnificent palace and estate of his, in a rather inaccessible part of his State, for founding a Sanskrit University; and, on the basis of this, the Bharatiya Vidya Prachar Samiti of Agra, with Dr.N.P. Asthana, a former Vice-Chancellor of Agra University, asChairman, had prepared and issued a memorandum and an appeal for an all-India SanskritUniversity (1945-46). At Dwarka, a well-known all-India pilgrim-centre, the Sankaracharya of Dwarka wanted to organise the Sri Dwarkadheesh University, and the scheme for this was published in 1947. In the South, in 1946, Dr.C.Kunhan Raja issued a booklet entitled "Sanskrit University: A Vision and a Mission", and recently (1956-57), availing themselves of the event of the golden jubilee of the accession to the gadi of Shri Sankaracharya of Kanchi, a number of leading citizens and Sanskritists of Madras announced their intention of founding a south Indian Sanskrit University. In Calcutta, the Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha, Belur, proposes to Found aSanskrit Mahavidyalaya with the potentiality of a University, and has issued a scheme and an appeal in that connection. Certain other Institutions also are being though of a Universities for the promotion and specialised study of certain schools of philosophy. Thus at Brindaban, there is what is being called a Vaishnava Theological University with the present Speaker of the Loka-Sabha as its Chancellor. At the birth-place of India's great philocopher Sankara, namely, Kaladi in Kerala, Swami Agamananda of the Ramakrishna Mission and his associates want to found a Sankara University for Vedantic and allied philosophical and cultural studies. It would be seen that many of these Sanskrit Universities are at present only in the "scheme and appeal"stage. 10. On Febrauary 28, 1956, a deputation of the Samskrta Visva Parisad consisting of the late N.Chandrasekhara Iyer, Ex-Judge, Supreme Court, Shri M.Ananatasayanam Aiyanger, Speaker of the Loka-Sabha, Sardar K.M. Oannikar and Shri M.Patanjali Sastri, Ex-Chief Justice of India, submitted a Memorandum to the Government of India asking for the establishment of an All-India Sanskrit Universit, where Sastraic leaning would be pursued on intensive traditional lines, together with some modern science. 11. As already pointed out, among our witnesses who favoured the establishment of Sanskrit Universities, there was no agreement as to the precise nature of a Sanskrit University and the number of such Jnstitutions to be established in the country. Somespoke of a single Central Sanskrit University for the whole of India; others wnated two, one for the North and one for the South; still others suggested that a minimum of four in four regions, North, South East and West, might be started. Shri K.M.Munshi, who has been continuously stressing the idea of a Sanskrit University, suggested the establishment of six University, namely, at Varanasi, Kurukshetra, Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Tirupati. He wanted these Universitites to be National Universities with Unlimited territorial Jurisdiction. Some witnesses suggested that as each State stood by itself and had its own Pathasalas requiring co-ordination, a Sanskrit University might be set up in each State to take care of traditional Sanskrit learning there. 12. As to the nature, scope and objective of a Sanskrit University, a variety of views was expressed. But the Commission wants to stress here one point on which there was unanimity among them; everyone wanted that the Sanskrit University should not interfere in any manner with the existing Universities and University Sanskrit Education. All of them wanted the Sanskrit University mainly for two specific purpose: (i) to promote Sanskrit studies in a special way and to larger extent, and (ii) to co-ordinate and upgrade the traditional Pathasalas and their system of Sanskrit Education. 13. There was one school of thought which emphatically opposed the idea of a Sanskrit University, and we should first consider their view. According to these witnesses, among whom were distinguished educationists, Sanskrit had already suffered a greatdeal owing to segregation, and that, however much upgraded, any set-up which further segregated it, instead of bringing it into more intimate relation with the current general educational set-up, would prove, highly injurious to it. This is a vital andinherent drawback of which this Commission would like all enthusiasts to beware. A remedy for this has been suggested by those witnesses who proposes that the sanskrit University should not neglect any modern faculty, including Science and Technology, and for this purpose should have Sanskrit as its sole medium of instruction and should also produce the necesary literature in Sanskrit. It was really heartening for the Commission to find that Shri C.D.Deshmukh himself was of this view; for otherwise , he said, Sanskrit could not be developed or made alive in a contemporary scene; this would also make all old science come in line with modern advancements, Shri Deshmukh also suggested that preparation of text-books in Sanskrit with new technical words would help all other Indian languages and bring about a uniformity of technical terminology. There is nothing inherently illogical in the idea of such a Sanskrit University. But it is as everyone will agree, aproject of stupendous magnitude, requiring both men ready to work it and free flow of funds to help those men. 14. According to some, a more practical idea would be that the Sanskrit University should provide for all branches of the Humanities, mainly Sanskritic, comprehending also the corresponding developments in modern thought. 15. A third idea, which was put forth by most of the witnesses who favoured a Sanskrit University, was to set it up as the apex of the pathasala system--the Sanskrit Colleges and the latter leading up to the Sanskrit University. This University wouldco-ordinate the Pathasalas and Sanskrit Colleges, regulate their courses of studies, inspect their working and conduct their examinations. At the same time, it would also look after the Research work which this Commission envisages for the products of the traditional type. For this, this University would have Professors in all the Sastras, a well-equipped library, a manuscript collection, and aseries of Sanskrit University; and it was teh opinion of Dr. A Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar that such a University for Sanskrit was feasible. 16. The Commission, therefore, recommends the establishment of Sanskrit Universities along the lines indicated in the preceding paragraph and in the Chapter on Sanskrit Education. It must be understood that this proposal presupposes the reorganisation of the Pathasalas and the Sanskrit Colleges (see Chapter V). We would further like to emphasise that it would be a travesty of the idea of a University if, merely out of enthusiasm, some existing Sanskrit College, itself not very well run, was given some trappings and christened afresh as a University. We would also suggest that, before organising a new Sanskrit University, it would be desirable to see how the Varanasi Sanskrit University in Uttar Pradesh worked, and profit thereby. It must be clearly borne in mind that a University has no status unless it comes into being under an Act of Legislature or a Special Charter. Elsewhere in this Report, we have discussed the relatedquestion of a Central Board of Sanskrit Studies. When such a Board comes into being, the Sanskrit University or Universities should have the bakcing and recognition of that Board. Till then it is desirable that a Sanskrit Uni-Till then, it is desirable that a Sanskrit Unisity Grants Commission. The Centre should make it a point to encourage all proper proposals for Sanskrit Universities coming from the States. 17. The Commission thinks that is would be desirable if the Central Government itself gave a lead in the matter by founding a Sanskirt University, which could work along with the proposed Central Board of Sanskrit Studies. This Sanskrit Univesity can function on the lines of other centrally administered Universities. As one Sanskrit University has already been founded at Varanasi in the North, this cnetrally administered sanskrit University may be located somewhere in the South. 18. The founding of a Sanskrit University will tone up the traditional system of Sanskrit Education considerably. It will not only bestow on its representatives some prestige but also afford them ample opportunities for higher work. It will, in the higher reaches where it works, help that consummation devoutly wished for by all, namely, an integration of the traditional depth and the new critical spirit, leading up to the dawn of a New Age of Creative Scholarhip in Sanskrit. CHAPTER X OTHER QUESTION CONCERNING SANSKRIT 1. The Use of Sanskrit on Formal Occasions 1. The Commission is fortifield by the general consensus of opinion as expressed by an overwhelming majority of persons, who gave evidence and who replied to our Questionnaire, in its view that the widespread use of Sanskrit on formal occasions would have its own effect in regaining for Sanskrit both its popularity and prestige. Beginning with our Legislatures, it may be suggested that the oath-taking by Members elected by the people or by special electoral colleges should normally take place inSanskrit, option being given to the members concerned to use their mother-tongue or the Official Language. it would be desirable if the necessary oath-taking formula in Sanskrit was made officialy available to members. While the Commission was sitingin the capital and the new Parliament was having its inaugural session, it was reported that some other members, including Acharya Kripalani, told the Commission that, had theyknown that there was available an oath-taking formula in Sanskrit, they too would have liked to take the oath in Sanskrit. There is no doubt that the use of Sanskrit with its stately diction and sonorous music and its great historic associations would add to the dignity and solemnity of such occasions. Sanskrit may also be adopted for the ceremonies of swearing-in of the President, Governors, Ministers, Judges etc. The Sessions of the Central and the State Legislatures as also all National and International Conferences sponsored by the Government might open their proceedings with the celebrated Rigvedic exhortation for concord and Unanimity: Such Conferences might as well conclude their deliberations with a suitable Vedic prayer, such as Atharvaveda XIX. The set phrases used on the occasion of University Convocations in the different Indian Universities should be in Sanskrit. Degrees, diplomas or similar honours awarded by learned bodies like Universities and National Academies and sanads for decorations conferred by the President,should also be in Sanskrit. Similarly, credential to be presented to the Heads of Foreign States by Representatives of India can very well be in Sanskrit and in an international language like English. The Indian passport also can be worded in theSanskrit language. In all these ways Sanskrit should be reinstated in its proper place of honour in the affairs of India. 2. Sanskrit and Religious Education 2. As India has declared herself to be a secular State, denominational religious instruction as such cannot be provided for in Government schools and colleges, nor can it be made compulsory in other schools and colleges. On the other hand, there cannot be any objection to the introducation of "Moral Instruction" in any scheme of education. Provision should, therefore, be made in all schools for such "Moral Instruction". The general principles of personal morality and social ethics which are conducive to the well-being of the individual and the society should be inculcated in the minds of all pupils in th schools. For this purpose, Sanskrit with its unending wealth of suitable texts and passages will be exceedingly appropriate. From the very early childhood, the average Indian boy and girl may be taught essential lessons of morality and social conduct through Sanskrit verses and tags which should be accompanied by translation in the mother-tongue. If children at a tender age are encouraged toget these by heart, both the texts and the translations, they will be equipped with a certain amount of intellectual and even spiritual wealth, with its aesthetic accompaniment because it is couched in a sonorous language like Sanskrit, and this willbe an assest for them throughout their whole life. Experience has shown that it is veryeasy to make tender children remember these distichs (even though they are not in the mother-tongue) by constant repetition along with a whole class; and even private teaching of these distichs as imparted in the family by a senior member also has the same effect. The importance, cultural as well as aesthetic and literary, of Sanskrit Subhasitas (or Sprueche) has been very highly stressed by discriminating scholars of Sanskrit. We whould, in this connection, recall the words of F.W.Thomas, which he uttered with regard to this side of classical Sanskrit literature in the course of his address as President of the Classical Sanskrit Section before the Ninth All-India Oriental Conference: "There would be, I suppose, a consensus among critics that in this department of ethical observation the Sanskrit literature displays an unrivalled richness, prespicacity and depth. it is here that the conception of Sanskrit literature as artificial or Alexandrine most completely collapses. So far from that being the case, it may be said that in this department of it, and there alone, Indian humanity--or indeed our common humanity--finds a full expression. But what leads to this literature an unsurpassable charm is its artistic setting". 3. One of the most potent factors in making Sanskrit a part of the intellectual make-up of our people has been the teaching of these Subhasitas in early childhood. As has been recommended elsewhere, these ethical verses should be taught to children, even if they do not intend to go in for higher Sanskrit studies in later life. 3.The Pronunciation of Sanskrit 4. For a language like Sanskrit, which has had a long bostory extending over 4,000 years and more and which is spread over a vast country where people have been speaking diverse languages form the very beginning, it is no wonder that an absolute uniformity of standard in its pronunciation is not found at the present day. Already we note dialectical or local differences in Sanskrit Pronunciation from the days of the Pratasakhyas down the centuries to our own days. From alternative spellings of a few words in Sanskrit, as well as orthographical mistakes in Sanskrit epigraphical documents and manuscripts of ancient and mediaeval times, this diversity of pronunciation becomes noticeable. It was only natural that people speaking languages otherthan Sanskrit should have introduced into the classical languages, even though it was looked upon with great reverence, their own linguistic or regional speech-habits. This is very difficult to get over, and people ordinarily are quite content if within an area there is a certian amount of intelligibility. All great languages of the world--particularly the classical languages which are no longer confined to any single community as a spoken language--have suffered in the same manner. Thus in Europe, the pronunciation Latin differs in different areas. similar is the case with Greek, as well as with Arabic and Hebrew. 5. In sanskrit at the present day we find a few different types of pronunciation, which are confined to seme letters and do not affect the basic unity of the language. In all these local pronunciation, the phonetic habits of the spoken languages or the mother-tongue are introduced, in reading or chanting Sanskrit. Some kinds of modern Indian pronunciation of Sanskrit are very much removed from a standard Sanskrit norm. Thus the pronunciation of Assam and Bengal (with different styles inEast Bengal districts and West bengal) are quite different from that obtaining over the greater part of India, having deviated most from the Sanskrit norm. Generally, it is accepted all over India that the Deccan and the South--the Maharashtra country and theDravidan-speaking lands of Andhra, Karanataka and Tamilnad--particularly in the case of Vedic scholars in these areas, give the best form of Modern Indian Pronunciation of Sanskrit. In Mithila or North Bihar, certain vernacular habits are persistent.In North India, there is a tendency to drop the short a at the end of syllables and words. There are several such local peculiarities of pronunciation all over India, which we need not enter into. The pronuncation of the Pandits of the Deccan and South India, on the whole, preserves a purer tradition. 6. It is certainly necessary in the interest of Sanskrit scholarship at the present day to bring in an improvement in the pronunciation of this great languges of India. This means that the teachers themselves will have to be taught. An absolute uniformity, of course, will not be possible, but something like a Modern Pan-Indian Standard should be established. This is already being done slowly, and the basis of this present-day pan-Indian pronunciation of the Maratha country and South India. Through the great influence of the scholars from South India and Maharashtra in centres of Hindu culture and Sanskrit learning in North India like Banaras and to some extent brindavan, as also in all modern University centres, the old North Indian habits of pronunciation are gradully being modified. On the basis of the pronuncation of the Banaras scholars hailing mostly from the Deccan and South India, a new pan-Indian Standard Pronunciation was generally introduced everywhere. For this purpose, we need properly trained readers or chanters of Sanskrit. The use of gramophones and tape-records should be very largely made for this purpose. Then, through the All-India Radio there may be instituted at least a couple of hours of Sanskrit reading and recitation every week. This will be not only popular with the general body of listerners but also will have a great educative value in enabling a new generation of students all over India to acquire a good pan-Indian tradtion of Sanskrit. 7. Sanskrit verses in the different metres are always chanted according to some simple tune or melody, and this is one of the acoustic attrations of sanskrit. Most of the Old Poetry in Modern Indian Languages is similarly chanted, according to the metre. Different metres of Sanskrit have different styles or tunes of recitations, and sometimes the same metre has more than one style. The various lingusitic areas also have their own traditions in this respect. These styles of recitation are gradullyfalling into disuse in schools; but it is necessary to preserve them, for they add considerably to teh aesthetic value of Sanskrit, and thereby encourage the reading and memorising of Sanskrit by young pupils. 4. The Question of Script 8. As a single languages, Sanskrit should have one pan-Indian script. At the present moment, the Devanagari script has been given this status practically everywhere. In the course of the long history of the Sanskrit languages, it is only during the last 1500 years and more that the unity of script so far as the languages is concerned has been considerably impaired. Unquestionably, Sanskrit was first written in a kind of ancient Brahmi script. this pan-Indian Brahmi began to change in different parts of India, and, in the course of centuries, was modified into various local scripts in which all the local speeches of teh North and the South as also Sanskrit came to be wrtten. 9. This fact is generally ignored or lost sight of when we think of the wide use of the Devanagari script at the present day. People in a particular languages ara would ordinarily use their own local script--devanagari, to start with, having been just one such local script. Even though the Sanskrit of the different localities, as a language, was perfect and would be understood and appreciated all over the country, the local scripts presented some difficulty with respect to the written material. Almost all Sanskrit books in Bengal and Assam were written in the Bengali Assamese script, in Orissa in the Oriya script, in Mithila in the Maithili script, in Nepal in the Newari script, in Kashmir in the Sarada script, in Kerala in the Malayalam script, in the Tamil country in the Grantha script, in Andhra and Karnataka in the two versions of the same Andhra-Karnataka script, and in Maharashtra in the Nagari script. This did not, however, prevent the free flow of manuscripts and the interchange of teachers and scholars among the different parts of the country, A sanskrit scholar who wanted to study a particular branch of Sanskrit learining in another part of the country had to acquire the local script to read particular texts, or to get them transcribed in his own. Manuscripts in local scripts would thus frequently be required to be transcribed into the relevant scripts of the area if books were to be read or adopted in another locality. This was certainly to some extent inconvenient, but people were accustomed to it and took it as a matter of course. Maithili manuscripts would be copied out in the Bengaliscript, as much as Bengali manuscripts would be copied out in the Malayalam or the Grantha script. The various Indian scripts being basically similar to one another, there was no serious difficulty or hardship caused by this diversity of scripts. 10. The first Sanskrit book to be printed was the Rtu-samhara of Kalidasa. It was printed in Bengali characters and was published at Calcutta in 1792. But the importance of Banaras as a centre of a Hindu learning was recognised by European scholars from the very beginning, and the script employed in Banaras for Sanskrit, among scholars from different parts of teh country, was Devanagari; and therefore Devanagari had attained some prestige as the script for Sanskri. Colebrooke's Sanskrit Grammar, which came out in1805, used the Devanagari script. wilkin's Sanskrit Grammar, which considerably helped the study of Sanskrit in Europe, was published in London in 1808 and was the first book to use Devanagari in Europe. Thereafter, most of the Sanskrit works, which were published in Europe as also in India, began to be printed in the Devanagari script as a matter of course. Printing and the world-wide use of the printed book may, indeed, be said to have brought in the standardization of script forSanskrit works during the first half of the last century and to have thereby bestowed upon Devanagari the status of the accepted all-India script for Sanskrit, and, to a large extent, even of the national script of India. 11. But the greatest fillip to teh Devanagari script was given by two great events: (1) the publication from Oxford by F.Max Mueller of the Rgveda-Samhita with Sayana's Commentary in the Devanagari script, from 1848 onwards, and (2) the policy adoptedby the three Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras to presribe for their examination Sanskrit texts printed only in the Devanagari script. The Question Papers in Sanskrit in these Universities were always printed in Devanagari. 12. This extensive and gradually expaning employment of Devanagari notwithstanding, the Commission has noted certain natural tendencies and practices which it wishes to place on record. It has been found that when Sanskrit is written and printed inthe same script as the mother-tongue (or in a script running very close to that of the mother-tongue, as in the case of Tamil-speakers among whom the Grantha script is still in use). Sanskrit as a language comes much nearer to the heart of teh people than when it is writtenand printed in the Nagari character. For instance, a Bengali person, who can fluently read and write Sanskrit in Devanagari, in Roamn, as well as in Bengali, normally finds a Sanskrit text printed in Bengali producing an immediate impression on him, ascoming nearer to his heart, so to say. The use of the same script for the mother-tongue and for Sanskrit has a very great psychological value. It makes one fee that, after all, there is not much difference between these two languages. Not only is there the sense of familiarity and confidence when one finds Sanskrit written or printed in the sript of one's mother-tongue, but when this initial difficulty in respect of the script is absent, many a word in Sanskrit also begins to gleam with familiarity as word already known in the mother-tongue. 13. The fact that in the Tamil country there has been a general tendency among Sanskrit scholars to abandon the Grantha script in printing Sanskrit and to use Devanagari, even when Tamil translations are published along with the text, has been responsible to some extent for making Sanskrit appear distinct from the local languages and script and, therefore, unpopular. The Grantha script and the Tamil have a number of letters and formations in common, and the extra letters needed in the fuller Grantha script for Sanskrit have a very great agreement--a family-likeness, so to say--with the Tamil letters; and in the printed page they accord very well: one never imagines that in a printed page a Tamil passage side by side with a Sanskrit passage in theGrantha are in different scripts. The use of the Grantha script in Tamilnad for Sanskrit was certaily a very great help to reconcile many people to the inherent agreement, at least through the script, between the languages. This feeling of being at home in the Grantha script, so far as the study of Sanskrit in Tamilnad was concerned, was in another way reiterated by the Sankaracharya of the Kamakoti Matha of Kanchipuram. He suggested, in thee course of the Commission's interview with him, that the use of the Grantha script for writing and printing Sanskrit in the Tamil country should be permitted, as it proved very helpful in bringing people closer to Sanskrit. 14. So, in strengthening the study of Sanskrit among those sections of the Indian people who do not use Devanagari in writing or printing their mother-tongue, the local scripts have to be recognised as possessing a great value. The knowledge of the Sanskrit language is much more important than the knowledge of the Devanagari script. For this reason, and considering also the fact that scripts other than Devanagari have been serving the cause of Sanskrit to the fullest extent, the Commission is of opinion that, while the knowledge of the Devanagari script should be made universal as the pan-Indian script for Sanskrit, the employment of the local scripts as a potent aid in the dissemination of Sanskrit should be contined. 15. Besides Devanagari and the various regional scripts, teh Roman script also has been used for the printing of Sanskrit texts, particularly by foreign Orientalists. Considering the large mass of Sanskrit material thus made available in the Roman script--and this mass is increasing in extent from year to yea--and considering also the value of Romanised Sanskrit for higher linguistic work, the Commission considers it necessary that advanced students of Sanskrit in India acquire the ability to read and write Sanskrit in the Roman character according to the internationally accepted system of transliteration. 5. Technical Terminology 16. Sanskrit, as the feeder language for both the Prakrits and the Modern Indo-Aryan Speeches, as well as for the South Indian Dravidian Languages, has been always supplying these languages with terms relating to higher culture. One of the oldest books in Tamil, the grammatical treatise Tol-Kappiyam (Sanskrit laksyam) and ilakkanam (Sanskrit laksanam), which together constitute Grammar. It has always been considered the most natural thing for all Indian languages to go to what has been looked upon as the source-langrage, namely, Sanskrit. By far the largest proportion of the philosophical and technical terms, which we have in Modern Indian Languages, are either pure Sanskrit or modified forms of it borrowed through the Prakrits. When a word is taken from Sanskrit, there is not the slightest feeling that the word is foreign or borrowed. Sanskrit is, indeed, looked upon as the great tresure-house of words, kept in reserve for all Modern Indian Languages. 17. At the present day, with the expansion of Indian life and civilisation under the impact of modern conditions, a greater and still greater need is being felt for technical and other words to indicate new ideas, new concepts, new objects and new processes which are coming in the world of Indian life and though. The words which are names of new objects and sometimes of new processes are generally taken straight from foreign languages. For technical terms relating to new concepts and ideas and ideologies in the various domains of human thought, newly coined words are used by the educated classes. While writing in the various Indian languages, they do not at all feel happy to use foreign terms. English or French or German. The usual practice is to find Sanskrit equivalent, if such are already in existence in Sanskrit; if these equivalents are known to the writers, they are used straightaway. Otherwise, new words are built up with Sanskrit roots and terminations. In this way, most of the Modern Indian Languages are having the necessary additions to their vocabularies, without much difficulty. As the Official Languages Commission points out, the identity of Terminology amongst all the Indian languages is due to its having been "commonly derived from teh Sanskrit language and the Sanskrit texts' (p.58). Dealing with the question of Terminology, the Official Language Commission further adds that the problem of suitable Terminology was "solved by writers in the Indian regional languages drawing freely from the reservior of Sanskrit, which is a particularly rich language in respect of prefixes, suffixes, prepositions, post-positions, etc. Largely on account of the availability of terminology in the Sanskrit language and literature, our languages have all along been 'borrowing' rather than 'building' languages" (p.58). 18. In the days of the British, some of the Native States which managed their own internal affairs, like Baroda, Mysore and Tripura, prepared their own term in local languages, and these terms were mostly derived from Sanskrit. Thus a move in this direction was made already before Independence. After Independence, this movement went on with greater vigour--in some cases, remarkable enthusiasm was shown in respect of it--both at the Centre as well as in teh various States like West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh Bihar. 19. But in the matter of evolving new scientific or technical terms to be used whether for the preparation of books for instruction through regional languages or for the administrative set-up, work has not been proceeding as satisfactorily as it should have done. For, only with a reasonable languge policy, adopted by the Central and the State Government, keeping in full view the actual needs of the country as well as the handicaps, can this work proceed systematically and with necessary discrimination. As regards one basic principle in this conncetion, however, most of the though-leaders, educationists and administrators are agreed, namely, that, as far as possible, the new terms which are necessary for the Indian languages should be uniform--thesame words should be employed to the utmost extent in all the languages--and that this uniformity can most easily and naturally be achieved through Sanskrit. 20. Herein, then, is one of the vital services which Sanskrit can render to Modern India, by enriching once again her languages adn making them fit for the Arts and teh Sciences, for the Thought and the Technology of the present age. The work that has been already started and accomplished in this direction not only by the States and the Universities but also by some private individulas, who on their own initiative have brought out English-Sanskrit Dictionaries of technical terms, has a lot to commend itself. This Commission would, however, suggest the preparation, through some agency to be set up by Government, of a comprehensive English-Sanskrit Dictionary of modern Scientific and Technical terms as well as terms relating to Philosophy adn theHumanities. An attampt should be made, first to find out what Sanskrit words, which may be used as equivalents of the new English terms, are already in existence; and, secondly, to see if new words could be coined with the help of Sanskrit roots and terminations on the basis of vernacular or Prakrit words which are in existence but the Sanskrit equivalents of which are not found in books or lexicons. In this connection, the Commission thinks that the vast amount of scientific and technical literature in Sanskrit has not been sufficiently exploited. Compared to the Sanskrit technical terms of classical usage, some of the new coinings in Sanskrit are too long and laboured and are also not quite precise. Scientists, who are also wrriters of research-works and text-books in the different Modern Indian Languages, should also form suitable Associations for the different sciences with the object of rensacking the treasure-house of Sanskrit for equivalents of new technical terms for general use all over India. 6. Sanskrit as an Official Language 21. From what has already been said, it would be clear that Sanskrit has the best claim to be the Official Language of India. The Sanskrit Commission is not considering this question merely out of enthusiasm; nor are we the first to pose this matter.Distinguished Indians, among whom are Intellectuals and Scientists like Dr.C.V.Raman and Congressmen and Administrators like Shri Sri Prakasa and Dr.K.N.Katju, have expressed the opinion more than once that they would prefer Sanskrit as the Lingua Indica. Many witnesses, including some leading thinkers, writers and publicists, wanted this question to beviewed in the light of the undesirable differences that have been created owing to the two major decision of the Government: the Linguistic Reorganisation of States; and the Imposition of Hindi on a country not yet ready for it and, in a considerableportion of it, unwilling take it. These witnesses proposed that the Constitution might even be amended on this question. It is not as if we are in total agreement with them. but we feel obliged to refer to the concern and the strong feeling which a large body of person such as we interviewed--scholars and writers, university-men and intellectuals--have on this question. 22. As already indicated, the Constituent Assembly did not give a smooth sailing to the Bill on Hindi as the Official Languages. The majority which decided such a vital issue was one of the narrowest. During the few stormy days of the Constituent Assembly's discussion of this question, the impasse was sought to be solved by some members by proposing Sanskrit as the Rastrabhasa; and the late Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who as the Law Member, was piloting the bill, was also reported to have favoured that proposal. In the course of the discussion of this question in the Assembly, several members, including some ardent protagonists of Hindi, paid due homage to Sanskrit. Apart from all this, the only other Indian languages for the adoption of which as the Rastrabhasa a regular amendment was moved, and discussion on which took a good part of the time of the Assembly, was Sanskri. 23. As Shri Naziruddin Ahmad, advocating Sanskri, put it on the floor of the House, a language that is adopted for the whole country, where so many languages are spoken, should be impartial, a languages which is not the mother-tongue of any area, which is common to all regions, and the adoption of which will not prove an advantage to one part of the country and a handicap to all other parts. The late Lakshmi Kanta Maitra, who moved the amendment seeking to replace Hindi by Sanskri as the Official Languages, observed in the Assembly, that, if sanskrit was accepted, "all the jealousies, all this bitterness will vanish with all the psychological complex that has been created ............. there will not be the least feeling of domination or suppression of this or that". Thus, neutrality (or not being the spoken language of any section) has been urged as the first criterion of a National Language. That is why efforts were being made to create in Europe quite a new languages like Esperanto, to be usedas the International Language perfected for this very purpose of all-India use through all these centuries, why throw it away? The neutrality of Sanskrit is not a mere negative quality; it is also the positive virtue of having grown by incorporating into itself elements from all other languages of the country. In this respect again, Sanskri, which, as has been pointed out elsewhere, is a synthesis of the best in all the cultural constituents of India,can truly claim to have been developed and enriched by every part of India. 24. The second criterion relates to sentiment, historic importance, cultural significance, inherent richness and potentiality, and, above all, universal acceptance as the symbol of the country. Sanskrit possesses all these characteristics, and it is needless to labour this point. No apology is needed for asking the country seriously to adopt Sanskrit. 25. The third criterion is the developed character and the provenance of a language. Here sanskrit is certainly not worse off than Hindi. In fact, its position is superior, for Hindi, which is still not much developed, hopes to become so only on the basis of Sanskrit. It is to Sanskrit that not only Hindi but all the languages of India look up for replenishment and growth. The linguistic and literay resources of Sanskrit have already been referred to. the proposal for Hindi itself carried with it the recognition of Sanskrit. If Hindi required a particular length of time to be able to take over from English, as the Official Language, Sanskrit would require a shorter time to do so. Regarding the question of provenance, English, which has now come to be widely advocated, is confined to about 1% of the population and that only in the higher classes, the intellectual elite who give lead to the people. A numerical majority is claimed for Hindi; but without underrating this, we would like to point out that both scholars and enthusiasts cannot afford to ignore the fact that at the back of 'Hindi'). Sanskrit is prevalent in all parts of India, and is the real G.C.M. of Indian languages. Its teaching is already provided for all over India, and in most of the modern Universities. With English, it enjoys an International prestige and recognition. To assign to Sanskrit this pan-Indian role is only to reinstate it in the position which it had been occupying down the centuries. 26. Above all, this commission would urge upon all statesmen and thinkers of the country to reflect calmly on the growing fissiparous tendencies and linguistic parachialism which are jeopardising the political unity fo the country and are rocking the very foundations of our freedom. If all such resources as can make the whole country rally round in unity are to be explored and exploited. Sanskrit, the Supreme Unifier, should be, first of all, exploited by making it the basis of a country-wide loyalty. 27. Sanskrit has been recognised as one of the fourteen languages of the Union, and the Constitution (which has been put also in sanskrit) give the right to an Indian citizen to address the Government on any matter, in Sanskrit. Since Sanskritised Hindi in the Devanagari script is already declared as the Official Language of the Union and since, for its generally development, Hindi will have to depend mostly on Sanskrit (as the recent trends clearly indicate), nothing new is really asked for by pressing for the recognition of Sanskrit as an Additional Official Languages. While for all administrative and ordinary day-to -day purposes, some pan-Indian form of Hindi may be used, it appears inevitable that, in course of time, the prospective All-IndiaLanguage--Bharati Bhasa--at least in its written norm, which would be acceptable to all regions of India, especially in the higher reaches of education and literary activity, will be a form of simple and modernised Sanskrit. 28. As we have already mentioned, the recongnition pf Sanskrit as the primary source of a Hindi places on the State a great responsibility towrds Sanskrit; and this responsibility can, in theopinion of the Commission, be adequately fulfilled only if two things are done: first, if sanskrit is declared as an additional Rastra-bhasa, particularly in respect of ceremonial, educational and cultural purposes; and, secondly. if, under the Special Directives in the Section of the Constitution on Official Language, a special addendum is included that is shall be the duty of the Union to promote the study of Sanskrit throughout its territory, as Sanskrit is the source of Modern Indian Languages, including Hindi; is the ancient repository of the cultural heritage of the country; and is of primary significance in the present context as a potent means of promoting national solidarity and as a bond of freindship with the entire Far East and South-East Asia which had long been, through Sanskrit, culturally related to India. 29. There is nothing out of the way in having more than one Official Languages: many Western countries have two, three and even four official languages. In all International bodies and conferences--cultural, scientific or political--two or three languages figure. The delays or costs of translations and duplications are nothing compared to the ill-feeling and permanent harm caused by insistence on unilinguism; multilinguism is, in fact, the principle of Panca-sila applied to the language question. 7. Sanslrit for Indian Administrative Service Officers and for Personnel in Indian Establishments Abroad. Indian Students going Abroad and Indian Culture 30. The Indian Administrative Service has the pick of our youngment holding responsible administrative posts all over the ocuntry. The service forms one of the greatest factors of pan-Indian unity, and its pan-Indian atmosphere and character should be effectively maintained. From this point of view, it would be desirable of the officers of the I.A.S. had a grounding in Sanskrit. Sanskrit might not be made a compulsory subject for the I.A.S. Examination; but some arrangements should be made which would enable the I.A.S. Probationers and Officers to acquire some knowledge of Sanskrit, or at least of the contributions of Sanskrit, or at least of the contribution of Sanskrit literature. Of course, they would naturally have have to study Indian History and Civilisation as an obligatory subject, and Sanskrit thought and culture would certainly have a prominent place in it, But a knowledge of the Sanskrit languages would enable them to appreciate the deeper vein in the life and culture of the people under their charge, and at the same time bring in a touch of a great humanistic tradition in their mantal make-up. There is also another thing. The I.A.S. Officers are required to serve in different parts of India, and a linguistic grasp of Sanskrit would stand them in good stead in quickly getting familiar with the Sanskrit-derived or Sanskrit-based languages in those areas. More-over, the I.A.S. men, who are usually the most prominent official of the locality, are often invited to take a leading part in the local literary,artistic and cultural activities. They would surely be better equipped to play this role effectively if they were imbued with the elements of sanskrit culture. So, in the opinion of the Commission to study Sanskrit without its being made a compulsory examination subject. 31. With regard to the personnel in Indian Establishment abroad like Embassies and Consulate, the experience of those, who have sojourned is foreign countries and have come in touch with the work which is being done by these Establishment on behalf ofIndia,has led them to think that some members of these establishment should be well qulified in Sanskritic culture as also in the Sanskirt language and literature. In most of the advanced countries, whether of Asia or Europe or America, there are laways to be found some serious enquires about matters relating to religion, philosophy, art, history and general culture of India. There are also, in many of these centres, University Departments of Sanskrit and Indology, and teachers and students in these Departments have frequent occasions to seek the assistance of the Indian Establishments there in connection with their work. The Indian Establishments should, therefore, be so equipped with men and materials as to be able to give effective and fruitful co-operation in all such circumstances. 32. What these Establishments do generally have today is a small library of representative books on various topics relating to Indian civilisation and culture. But that is not always enough, Moreover, even this library can be easily improved and madeknown to local people interested in Indian culture. In this connection it may be pointed out that Great Britain has a world-wide organisation, called the British Council, which is primarily a cultural department devoted, among other things, to the promotion and sustenance of interest in English Languages and Literature. The United States Information Service is also doing similar work through its excellent library service in many countries of the world. The Indian Government should also set up some such organisation for the adequate propagation of the knowledge of Indian thought and culture which, on account of the unique position which, on account of the unique position which India has established for herself in international affairs, have evoked in recent years a special interest among the peoples of the world. 33. It is further necessary that the Indian Government take early steps to appoint Cultural Attaches at least in their major Embassies abroad. Out of the three majore functions of an Embassy, namely, maintaining friendly diplomatic relations, promotingtrade and commerce, and establishing cultural contacts, the last one is, we are afraid, being woefully neglected at present. It has been most distressing for some of us to find crass ignorance displayed by some responsible officers in Indian Establishments with regard to things of permanent value in Indian culture; and the sort of implied contempt with which this ignorance is sometimes sought to be covered up is still more distressing. When a foreign foundation spends a considerable amount of money and brings out a substantial volume on Hinduism or some aspect of Indian culture, the local Indian Embassy, when given a free copy of it, does not encourage the effort with even an appreciative letter. If any one in London School of Oriental andAfrican Studies; and if he wants to know something about Indian Music, he goes to the B.B.C.; in neither case does he even think of the Indian Establishment abroad Cultural Attaches, who would possess special competence in Sanskrit Culture and SanskritLanguages and Literature. As Dr. J. Filliozat, Professor of Indian Languages and Literatures in College de France, Paris, and Director of the French Institute of Indolog, Pondicherry, Points outs, a knowledge of Sanskrit will enable the Cultural Advisers in Indian Embassies, to present to foreign countries a more genuine picture of Indian civilisation. It has been further noted that in Indonesia, in Thailand, in Japan and in several other countries a special acquainted with Sanskrit goes a long way in establishing an intimate king of entente among the intellectuals of these countries and Indian representatives. This is true to some extent of other foreign lands as well. 34. It would be pertinent to refer, at this stage, to another significant point. There are large bodies of Indian nationals living in different foreign countries. In some places, like malaya, Fiji, East Africa, South Africa, Mauritius, Trinidad and British Guiana, the number of Indian nationals is, indeed, quite considerable. Long and continuous separation of these people from their Mother-land is often liable to estrange them completelt from their own cultural heritage which they are very eager to maintain. It is, therefore, most essential that the Indian Government arrange, through their Establishments abroad or, in some cases, by sending out special parties of these people with India ever alive. This Commission has actually received letters from Indians living abroad telling it how keen they were on their children having some opportunity in those foreign lands to learn Sanskrit language and literature and thereby get an initiation into the true Indian spirit. 35. Elsewhere we have referred to the question of Indian students going abroad for higher studies. In European and American Universities, a considerable body of Indian students are being educated. These young men and women move about among the people more than our Embassy personnel; naturally there are more occasions when questions are asked of them about Indian thought or some specific aspect of it. Members of this Commission know from their personal experience that not only is the young Indian student in a foreign country--of course, with stray exceptions--unable to meet such situations intelligently, but he often says, out of ignorance and lack of proper equipment, quite wrong and unbecoming things about India and her culture. Much more than inthe Embassy sector should Government make serious attempts in the sphere of Indian students going abroad to see that these young men and women are better representatives of Indian thought and culture. Ambassadorial service to the Mother-land, it shouldbe remembered, is done not only by the official personnel, but perhaps to a larger extent, also by the non-official communtiy of a country's national living in a foreign country. 36. This Commission, therefore, recommends (i) that Government take early steps to appoint, in Indian Embassies abroad, Cultural Attaches Possessing special competence in Sanskrit Language, Literature and Culture; and (ii) that they also organsie various special courses of lectures on Sanskrit thought and culture for the Probationers in Indian Administrative and Foreign Services and for Indian students going abroad for higher studies. 8. State Patronage of Sanskrit Scholarship, and Encouragement to Sanskrit Scholars 37. In the case of a cultural study like Sanskrit, where even a minimum material return is not ensured, either to the teacher on to the student, patronage of such a study by the State and by private citizens is essential. Scholarship and Skill in the Arts and the Crafts have always, and in all countries, been dependent on public support. In the olden days rich people, who were more or less the real custodians of the national culture, patronised poets and artists for thier own pleasure as also for the benefit of others. Rulers and rich landlords always took pride in and gained distinction and fame through such patronage of Arts and Letters. So far as Sanskrit stidies in India were concerned, it was these patrons on the one hand, and the society as a whole on the other, who looked to the needs of Sanskrit scholars. As pointed out else-where, part of India were always free institutions where students were lodged and fed by their teachers; and this it was possible for the teacher to do because of the grants in cash or in kind as well as of lands which they received from the rulers of the country and big landlords and merchants. The common people also brought in their quota. In the establishments of rulers, big and small, there was always provision fo rthe manintenance of some scholars, and one or two of the more eminent among them held some specially high position as the Court Pandit (Sabha-Pandita or Asthana-Vidvan). Scholars went about in different parts of the country to participate in debates in special branches of Sanskrit learning. These scholarly contests were regarded with keen interest and enthusiasm, and great kudos as well as material gain in the shape of gold ornaments, costly clothes and money prizes came to those who came in the shape of gold ornamens, costly clothes and money prizes came to those who came offo victorious in them. Somethimes extempore compositions in sanskri peotry were also the subject for comoetition. Until very recently this was the practice everywhere, and it is still continuing in some parts of the country where economic conditions and the attitude of people are favourable. 38. Elsewhere we have seen how, in his Minute of 1811, Lord Minto complained about the sad state of learning in India which he attributed "to the want of that encouragement which was formerly afforded to it by princes, chieftains and opulent individulasunder the native governments", and how the stimulus of honorary marks of distinction, and in some instances of pecuniary assistance". Later the British Government also recongnised, to a certain extent, the duty of the State to act as patrons of Sanskrit learning. Along with the various titular honours, which were conferred by the Government on some persons,mainly for their political, administrative and social services, there were alo awarded titles of honour for eminent Sanskrit and other Oriental Scholars, Shamsu-l-Ulema for Arabic and Persian scholars and Agga-Maha-Pandita for Pali scholars (in Burma). On the recommendation of the Provincial Governments, these titles were awarded by the Central Government, and along with the title went a Khilat or dress of honour, and, latterly, a token grant of Rs.100 per year. These titles were looked upon by the public as evidence, it was decided to ablosih all these titles. But now the Government have once again introduced a new series of decorations, such as BharataRatna, Padma-Vibhushana, Padma-Bhushana and Padma-Sri. Besides, there are titles, honours and medals fo rthe different branches of the Defence Forces. 39. The matter of an expression of State appreciation for Sanskrit and other Oriental Scholars through the award of some titles, together with an honorarium, was raised before the Commission by a number of witnesses. The general view was that the title,Mahamahopadhyaya, which is a scholarly distinction going back to pre-British days, should be restored. In the course of its interview with some of the highest authorities in the country, like the President and the Prime Minister, it was noted by the Commission that there was in all instances a very sympathetic view taken of this matter. The Commission is, however, of the opinion that not only should the title, Mahamahopadhvava, be once again restored, but that is should also carry with it a life honorarium of Rs.200 per month. This will unquestionably be of a great psychological value in enhancing the prestige of Sanskrit and in putting heart in our senior sanskri scholars of real eminence.40. connected with the above suggestion is another, which the Commission would like to make, and in this matter also it has the support of wuite a large number of people in the country. Among the old style Sanskrit Pandits, all may not be looked upon as so eminents as to receive the highest title of Mahamahopadhyaya from the Government, but there are many who have nevertheless distinduished themselves in their special branches of study; these Pandits should also recive some recognition and help. There are many such Pandits, who are now above 50, and who, not being attached to any salaried posts in public institutions, eke out a precarious existence by means of private teaching. Each State should select the mor eeminent among them, respected and esteemed by the people for their learning and character, and grant them a pension for life at least of Rs.100 permonth. The Union and the State Governments might fix, for the whole country, a certain number for such recognition and help--say, forty Mahamahopadhyayas each with a life-honorarium of Rs.200 per month, and 200 Pandit Life-Pensions each of the value of Rs.100 per month. the institution by Government of these titles and awards is boung to prove a great incentive to Pandit learning. 41. It was also suggested by some witnesses--and this Commission would like to endorse that suggestion--that some of the eminent Pandits who took an intelligent interest inpublic affairs might be, like other scholars, writers and artists, be given some recognition by being nominated to the Central and State Legislatures and to the Senates of the different Universities. 42. It was coustomary of India among the rulers of different States to hold periodical conferences of sanskrit Scholars; and these conferences proved a great encouragement to sanskrit scholars, young and old, by making them take part in public disputations, literary contests and the like. These gatherings of learned Sanskrit scholars were known as Pandita-Parisads, Veda-Gosthis, Brahmodyas, Pandita-Sabhas, Vicara-Sabhas, Mukti-Mandapas, etc. This custom is still being continued, though not with as much eclat and enthusiasm as before, as there is no official backing for them. Whenever possible, the All-India Oriental Conference organises, as a very important part of its programme, a Sanskrit Pandits. It would be desirable of such a Pandita-Parisad was made a necessary integral part of every Session of the All-India Oriental conference. Apart from this, however, the Commission recommends that the Central Government arrange for such an annual Pandita-Parisad on an All-India scale. The President might utilise that occasion also for conferring the titles of Mahamahopadhyaya on the nominees of that year. This Pandita-Parisad and similar gatherings of Pandits to be organised by the State Governments in different towns of India will keep alive the interest of Pandits and inspire them to fresh lines of literary activity. 9. Maths and Temples and Encouragement of sanskrit 43. Where the old religious life has not disintegrated and the traditions are still going strong, as, for example, in some parts of south India, there are to be found a large number of Maths or monasteries belonging to the Hindus and the Jainas, and also temples, which are properly endowed. Generally, the income from these temples or Maths is directed towards their maintenance; and, as a part of this maintenance, there is sometimes provision for charity to persons connected with religion as also for encouragement of Sanskrit ic studies. It is to be noted that the first charge on the resources ofthe temples is the proper conduct of the daily rituals of worship and the routine activities of the temple. The surplus, which is considerable in a few great temples, such as Tirupati, to mention only one outstanding shrine of all-India importance,is to be spent for purposes related to the ideals for which these religious institutions had been founded; and education in Vedas, Agamas and Sanskrit has been a time-honoured additonal chrge on the resources of these temples. But in some cases, it has been found that the situation is not as satisfactory as it should be. Sometimes, the management, which may be appointed by the Government, diverts funds to needs and objects other than those which are implied by the veryfact of endowing a temple or a Math. It also happens that, in many States, the Prevailing Political ideology--rather than the legality or the nature of the original aims and objects of the endowment--influences the disposal of the Math or temples funds. Within the State, in such a situation, there cannot be any just and equitable administration of the funds, and their employment for precisely the same object, for which they were originally endowed, is hampered or stopped. 44. In the course of its tours, this Commission came to know that a large number of enowments intended, among other things, for Sanskrit and allied studies had been founded in different parts of the country, particularly Panjab, Uttar Pradesh and SouthIndia. We were told that, in all these places, diversion of these endowments for purposes other than sanskrit studies was quite common. In Uttar Pradesh alone, we were informed, 150 Trusts intended for Sanskrit had been diverted for opening English and other schools. It has been felt in many quarters, particularly where disabilities are being indulged in, that the Central Government should direct the proper use of these funds. A full survey of such endowments for Sanskrit studied in the country should be undertaken by Government, and adequate plans should be made for their proper utilisation. It is quite clear that a respectable sum of money, which is already there, can be very profitably and quite properly employed for the promotion and development of Sanskrit and allied studies. After meeting the primary needs of regular temple-worship and other specific matters connected with the Institution, the amount available may be used for the encouragement of Sanskirit studies, for pulication of Sanskrit works, for the maintenance of schools, for holding regular and occasional gatherings of Sanskrit Scholars for lectures to the public, and for honouring the Pandits with prizes and other emoluments. 45. The Commission also noted that there were other endowments which were mismanaged or were allowed to remain in infructuous condtition. The Commission was told of large accumulation of unutilised funds, as for instance in Bombay, where religiou and similar endowments amounting to several lakhs or Rupees have long remained idle. This matter also needs to be looked into by the authorities so that these resources could be released for the promotion of Sanskrit. 10. Tradition of Veda-Patha, Purana-Patha and Paurohitya (a) Veda-Patha. 46. The Veda, in all its branches, has, since the most ancient times, been preserved in this country through oral tradition, being learnt by heart completely by an entire communtiy, and being handed down by word or mouth from father to son and teacher to pupil. for the corrctness and the meticulously faultless preservation of the text, eight forms of recital (ata-vikrtis) had been devised: Pada (in separata words), Ghana, Jata etc., in which, according to different schemes, words were repeated, ending with Varna-krama in which every single letter of the hymn was phonetically described. The Vedas form the bedrock of Sanskrit literature and Indian culture; and, what is more, they have played the most important role in modern research in Comparative Philology and Regligion. Down the ages, kings extended unstinted patronage to Vedic scholars, who not only mastered and preserved intact the text of the Vedas and helped to keep up the regious and ritualistic activities where they were used, but also developed Vedic literature with commentaries and expositiry works. That the Veda has not lost its great significance today can be realised by the extent to which the Vedia Samhita proved an inspiration to modern teachers and philosophers like Dayananda Sarasvati and Shri Aurobindo 47. Though there have been numberless manuscripts of the Vedas, it is remarkable that till recently the main method of their preservation had been by Kantha-patha or learning by rote. No doubt, during the centuries, owing to invasions, foreign impacts and social upheavals, several schools (Sakhas0 of the four Vedas have become extinct; but it is only in the last century that the traditions of Vedic recitation have undergone a very rapid decay. Apart from the religious significance of Veda-patha, it was its literary and philological importance that prompted this Commission to make, in the course of its tours, a country-wide investigation into the present state of its tradition. During our tours, many Sanskrit Institutions, particularly in the South, received us with or treated us to Vedic recitations in the normal forms as well as in some of the eight special styles of recitative exercise. But such recitations could not be heard in all places, nor from all the Vedas. In Assam, Bengal and Orissa, Vedic tradition is practically extinct; in North Bihar, Darbhanga preserves some Samaveda; in most parts of North India from Uttar pradesh to Panjab and allover Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, it is the Sukla Yajurveda--Kanva or Madhyandina--which is generally prevalent. The Krishna Yajurveda lives mostly in Andhra, Tamil-nad, Karnataka and Maharashtra. The Rgveda is extensively prevalent metropolis,. all the Vedas and their Sakhas are maintained. 48. The Vedas, which need special attention in the present state of Veda-Patha, are the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda. The Saman, which is primarily the musical version of some portions of the Rgveda, is valuable also for the history of Indian Music in all its aspects. This Veda is now prevalent in three main schools or styles of chanting: Kauthuma in Gujarat, some village near Lucknow, Darbhanga, Tamilnad and Karanataka; the Jaiminiya in some parts of Tamilnad and to a larger extent in Kerala; and the Ranayaniya in Rajathan and in Mathura. The styles of Sama-gana differ considerable from one another; even in the same Kauthuma or the Jaiminiya school, the style of rendering in one part of the country differs from that in another. 49. If the tradition of Saman-chating is gradully becoming more and more limited, that of the Atharvaveda may be said to have already become almost extinct. There are in Saurashtra a few families belonging to the Atharvaveda; in Banaras, there is oneTeacher and a line of his pupils who do not belong to the Atharvaveda but who have picked up some of it for ceremonial purpose. It was, however, heartening for this Commission to have made one precious discovery in the course of its tours that, in somevillage of Gujarat and Saurastra, namely, Kanvalaya, Lunavada and Bhavanagar, there are a few Vaidika families the Kantha-patha of the Atharvaveda as their sva-sakha. 50. Some of the institutions which we visited, particularly in the South, either had provision for the learning of the Vedas by rote or were exclusive Veda-Pathasalas; but we found that, here too, the strength was meagre. Most pf the South Indian Veda-pathasalas were founded on the charities of wealthy Chettiars, whose assets in Burma, Saigon, etc., have become paralysed after the last war. Local mismanagement was also responsible for the failure of some of the Vedia endowments. In Kerala, tha Nambudiri community had its own trusts in which all Nambudiri boys underwent Vedic training up to a particular age. 51. In the Chapters on Sanskrit Education and Sanskrit Research, we have laid some emphasis on the study of the Veda. The easy access to Vedic texts which printing has made possible and the various research projects in the field of the Veda which are being carried out today should not lead us to think that the preservation of the oral tradition of the Veda is no longer necessary. Apart from the religious and aesthetic effect of Vedic recitals, the actual intonations and accents and the rules of the Siksa-texts, which are all relevant to modern phonetic studies, can be properly studied only from the oral tradition. In modern colleges and traditional pathasals, portaions of the veda are prescribed for study and are taught without any idea being given to students of the mode of their recitation. In research institutions also, textual editorial work goes on mostly without utilising what has been preserved orally. To realise fully how valuable the oral tradition is for research purpose also, we would like to quote one of the leading Vedic scholars of Europe,Prof. Louis Renou of paris University. In his review of Indian Studies, he says : "If we knew how to use these undaunted reciters of the Veda of certain ...........we should observe the persistence of certain variants, of certain phonetic or accentual traditions which no manuscript could ever perpetuate.......... Oral transmission calls for certain forms of fidelity with which a written text can dispense". 52. It was suggested by some witnesses that complete recordings on Tape and Wax should be taken of Vedic recitations according to the different scholls. This is certainly a very good suggestion, and the Commission fully endorses it. Early steps shouldbe taken to perpare a complete set of such recordings from Vedic recitations by representative Vaidikas selected from all over the country. we may rest assured that the money spent on this project will have been well and usefully spent. This must, indeed, be done before itis too late. The original set of these recordings should be preserved in the proposed Central Institute of Indology, and copies institutions, if and when required. 53. It should, however, be clearly realised that the recordings of Vedic recitals can serve archival purpose very well, but they can be no substitute for actual and live preservation by the throat, even as it is the case with music. This Commission, therefore, further recommends that steps should be devised to preserve the oral tradition of Vedic recitals; that young students should be encouraged to learn Vedic hymns by rote with correct intonation and accents according to the different schools; and that the authorities should give a helping hand in setting aright the financial condition of Vedic foundations which are in difficulty. Affluent temples and religious endowments which have been the standing patrons and sustainers of Vedic recitations down the ages, as inscriptions testify, should be called upon not to discontinue the practice of providing for these Vedic recitations as part of the daily service in the temples, or of seasonal festivals. Research Institutions and Departments working especially on Veda should enlist the help of Vaidikas who are proficient in the oral tradition of the Veda. we found, during our tours, that in the South especially, and in the Deccan and in Banaras, there were large nuimber of Vaidika families preserving the kantha-patha of the Vedas; some of these families could be very well transplanted in areas in the North where the tradition of Vedic recitation is becoming or ha already become extinct. This would be a distinct gain to these parts of the country as also to those Vaidikas who preserve the Vedic tradition but cannot be said to be economically well off; the support that they way in which traditions of scholarship were preserved and propagated in ancient and medieval times; and even in modern times, we found that this method had produced good results, as for instance, in Darbhanga in respect of the Samaveda. The Commission further recommends that special attention should be paid to the resuscitation and propagation of the traditions of the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda. (b) Purana-Patha: 54. The institution of public recital and exposition of the Epics and Puranas has, from very early times, been the most effective medium of popular adult eduation and sugnificant means of inculcating in th emasses the highest truths of the Vedas and the ideal of character and conduct exemplified by Rama, Yudhisthira, Sita, Savitri, etc. That kings of ancient and medieval times set apart special encowments of the public exposition of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata is known from numerous inscriptions not only in India but also in Cambodia. Through poem and play, and song and dance, the epics and myths have been cherished by the people in different parts of India, as also in various other contries of public pravacana by the Vyasas of the North, the Kathakas of Bengal and the pauranikas of the Deccan and the south have served to make the masses, however illiterate they may be , keenly alive to the higher values of life. These expositions have also been one of the regular sources of sustenance for Sanskrit scholars. In the ocurse of our inquiry, we found that this institution was still quite popular, and, especially in the South, there were specialists (Bhagavataras) who were highly successful as exponents of the Ramayana or the Bhagavata; and huge concourses of people gathered to listen to the epics. 55. Several witnesses stressed before us the points that these epic and Puranic expositions could be effectively utilised for the purpose of cultural propaganda and the moral toning up of the masses; and that, under the Five year plans and the schemes for Community Projects and Ntional Extension Service, these gifted exponents of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata could be usefully employed. In fact, the Secretary of the Education Department of the Government of West Bengal told us that the Departmenthad requistioned the services of one such Bhagavata lecturer. Similar efforts are being made, on a wider scale and in a more systematic manner, by the Mysore Government which has set up for such work a Cultural Development. The Commisssion feels thatsuch of the Sanskritists, particularly of the traditional type, who have a flair for such entertaining and edificatory expositions, may take to this calling, instead of all of them thinking of the school teacher's line alone as being open to them. To this end, the Sanskrit pathasalas themselves might usefully organise a course in Itihasa-Purana and popular exposition. Those students who have the further gift of music could become successful performers of Kirtana or Hari-katha. We would recommend that the authorities in charge of Temples, Maths, and Community Projects and National Extension Service should help such Sanskritists as have a gift for this kind of populars expositions of the epics and Puranas, by employing them regularly. In some States there are Devasvam Departments and Religious Endowment Boards directing the activities of Temples, and we think it is a legitimate duty of the Temples, such as have the necessary means, to emplythese Kathakas, Pauranikas and performers of Kirtana andHari-Katha. (c) Paurohitya: 56. In the present curricula pf studies in the Pathasalas, Srauta and Paurohitya are included only to a limited extent. In Baroda, the late Maharaja Sayaji Rao had promulgated the Purohit Act, according to which no one who had not attained a particularstandard by passing the Purohita's course in the Baroda Sanskrit College could officiate as preist in his State. In most Christian countries, some qualification in divinity is necessary for one to become a member of the clergy. In Iran, a similar qualification is insisted upon before a person can become an Imam in a mosque. In ancient India, it was the learned public itself which enforced this tandard. While today it is not possible for the State to lay down any course or qualification reagarding this, the Commission thinks that the traditional Pathasalas should organise regular courses in paurohitya . This might bring them some more students who could make their equipment readily useful to the community. As we went round, attended functions and met several Vaidikas, we felt that the community of Vaidikas and purohitas could be given a better academic grounding, and that, if they became properly qualified in Sanskrit and in disciplines allied to their calling, Vedic studies themselves would get strengthened and enriched. I I. Technical Disciplines 57. As pointed out in Chapter I V, the field of Sanskrit literature is very vast. It embraces the entire realm of knowledge in ancient and medieval India, and comprises many scientific and technical subjects and arts and crafts. It is not, therefore,in pure academic institutions or within the four walls of Colleges and Pathasalas alone that the cultivation of Sanskrit is to be looked for. This Commission is interested in the all-round growth of Sanskrit as a vehicle not merely of literature, religion and philosophy, but also of the different branches of knowledge including the practical arts and sciences. There are in Sanskrit scientific works on medicine, astronomy, mathematics, etc., and on dance, music, paintaing, architecture, iconography, etc. In Modern University curricula, only a historical knowledge can be given of these; and we have recommended, in the Chapter on Sanskrit Education, that in different subjects like medicine, mathematics, etc., the University courses should provide, aspart of the history of the respective subjects, for the study of the contributions of India to these sciences, as embodied in old Sanskrit texts. The sciences have generally had an arrested growth in India, and they have to be brought in line with themodern scientific advances. (a) Ayurveda: 58. Of all these sciences, the most important is the science of indigenous medicine called Ayurveda, which is still alive and widely practised in the country. Ayurveda is suited to the constitution of the Indians and has cheap remedies which are readily available and which form part of the general knowledge of the people. During our enquiry, we met many successful Ayurvedic practitioners, proficient in the Sanskrit texts, who siad that they and their knowledge were in good demand. The Commission also saw that there were many Ayurvedic establishments, particularly in the North, which had many manufactories provided with mechanical equipments for preparing dedicines on a large scale. In some parts of the country, the traditional style of Sanskrit education included instruction in Ayurveda as a special course for a Diploma awarded by the local Universities. 59. One of the questions which naturally arises in connection with Ayurveda is its postion vis-a-vis the science of modern medicine. There are advocates of modern medicine who are opposed to Ayurveda as an outmoded and unscientific system; on the other hand, there are the enthusiasts for Ayurveda who are prepared to prove to the hilt the scientific nature still others of a third type who advocate an integration of the two systems. At present, the courses of studies in the Ayurvedic side of the traditional Colleges do include the necessary quantum of modern anatomy and minor surgery. Many advocates of Ayurvedia told us that they did not want any integration beyond this. We also learnt that some opf the so called integrated medicine courses were mostly allopathic in character and cut at the very root of Ayurveda. Strong opposition was voiced against the policy of some States which thus "allopathised" their Colleges of indigenous medicine. In this connection, the Commission would like to refer to the views which a leading medical authority of the country, the present Vice-Chancellor of the Madras University, expressed before the Commission. Dr. A. Laksmanaswami Mudaliar was not in favour of any such integration; but he was for the fully qualified allopathic or Ayurvedic doctors critically studying the other system and picking up from it such elements as they found useful. It is this kind of integration at higher levels whic we have recommended in other fields also most healthy and fruitful. 60. It is necessary that the Ayurvedic wings of Sanskrit Pathasalas have the full complement of beds, herbarium, manufactory, dispensary, research section, etc. Ayurveda cannot be taught merely through books. This Commission would recommend that Ayurveda should be made a Degree subject in the modern Universities, so that all the advantages of upgrading which a University status conferred could accrue to this subject. It would also be desirable if the Universities had, in their Research Departments,sections devoted to Ayurveda where investigations in the higher and less known aspects of that science could be carried out. There is also the need to fix exactly the identity of Ayurvedic drugs which are known by common Sanskrit names, but are differently understood in different areas. Similarly, up-to date text-books in Sanskrit have to be prepared on various branches of Ayurveda for all-India use, like Gananath Sen's Pratyaksa-Sarira, the Siddhanta-nidana, the Rasa-jalanidhi and the more recent Svastha-vratta and Padartha-Vijnana from Bombay and Poona. 61. Several persons connected with Ayurvedic studies represented before the Commission that the state policy in connection with the indigenous system should bne chaged substantially if Ayurveda was to have an all-round development. Recently, there has been some change, and Governments are giving some blocks grants to different centres for the development of Ayurveda. This is a matter for the Ministry of Health and the Planning Commission. Our country is vast and the demand for doctors and medical treatment cannot be adwquately met by modern allopathy. Allopathy involves costly colleges and even costlier tratmentand medicines, and unfamiliar diet-receipts, etc. Adequate allotments should, therefore, be made for the widespread use of the easy and congenial indigenous system, particularly in the rural areas. As part of this recognition and upgrading, there should be set up an All-India Council of Indigenous Medicine, and also a Central Institute of Research in Indigenous Medical System, includingVeterinary Science. Advanced research in indigenoud medicine is at present being carried out only in an extremely small number of centres. We know that froeign medical libraries, like the Wellcome Medical Historical Library, London, have large collections of manuscripts of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian medical treatises, and foreign llabortories are carrying on investigations in Indian drugs and their potency for modern diseases. It is but proper that Indian scholars receive sustantial help from the authorities concerned for the adequate exploitation of indigenous medicinal lore, resources and material. (b) Jyotisa: 62. Astronomy is taught in many Pathasalas, and the classes in some institutions are equipped with some modern aids also. In the Banaras Sanskrit College, attempts are made to study Indian Astronomy with the help of modern astronomical instruments. This sceience, like Medicine, has had an arrested growth in India. Here, too, there are advocates who plead for bringing the ancient texts abrest of modern knowledge, and there are others, Pandits as well as some Professors, who strive to maintain unchanged the old Jyotisa-sastra. Normally, the students of Jyotisa in the pathasalas obtain much vogue as astrologers and cannot be said to suffer from want of employment. But this Commission is of the view that in Indian Astronomy and Mathematics there is much scopefor research, and that those, who are proficient in modern astronomy and mathematics and who also know Sanskirt should be encouraged to take to research in Jyotisa, so that they migh bring to light hidden texts and correlate and evaluate their contributions. (c) Arts and Crafts: 63. At present there are quite a few Institutions in India--both Government and private--where music and dance, sculpture, painting and architecture are being systematically studied. There are also the State-sponsored Academies which encourage these arts and crafts. all these ar subjects in which there are Sanskrit texts embodying the ancient Indian traditions and norms. There is the need not only to edit all these texts with the actual survivals of different artistic tradtions in the country. Some representative Sanskrit texts should, indeed, be included in the courses of those Institutions, which teach all these arts and crafts. it is essentail that the votaries of these arts and crafts know not only the ancient tradition but also the higherphilosophy of art contemplated in the tradtional approach to art as set forth in these treaties. 64. The Commission interviewed some Silpis and Sthapatis and visited and learnt about soem schools established for the teaching of Silpa. The All- India Handicrafts Board would do well to take interest in and help these artists in the traditional line. There are in India a few schools of architecture and this subject is also being introduced in the Universities. But the architects trained in these institutions often turn to the West for their ideas, so that ther is today hardly anything which can be called truly Indian architecture. There is much scope for research in the type of architecture that would suit this country, its climate, needs, habits, means, etc. This Commission feels that a study of Sanskrit texts on Solpa-Sastra and the employment in the modern scholls of architecture of indigenous Silipis, who are still surviving, would prove helful in this connection. 12. Sanskrit and the people (a) "Basic Sanskrit": 65. There is a general feeling, particularly in uninformed circles, that Sanskrit as an ancient languages, with a plethora of formative affixes and declensional and conjugational inflections, is a very complicated languages. People are prone to contrast Sanskrit with a modern languages like Hindi or English. But the fact is generally lost sight of that each language like English, the inflexions have been very largely whittled down, Sanskrit retains to the fullest its formative affixes and terminations. The eight cases of the Sanskrit Noun and Pronoun, the various classes of declensions arranged according to the terminations, the three numbers along with the three genders--all this seems to make the declensions of the Noun(and the Pronoun0 in Sanskrit a formidable affair. And when the conjugational system is considered, with hundreds of inflected forms derived from the same root, with four or five moods and different tenses including the very complicated tenses for the past like the perfect, the aorist and the imperfect, and other new forms also for the past tense, and extended conjugations like causative, denominatives, desideratives, and intensives or frequentatives, it looks still more formidabnle; and aspirantsfor Sanskrit may feel easily discouraged. In view of all this, and inspired to some extent by the example of the recent attempt to make English a much as "Basic English"' many people in India--and some of them are good Sanskrit scholars too--have suggested that there should be a simplification of Sanskrit, which then could be described as "Basic Sanskrit". There have been published several books and articles advocating this "Basic Sanskrit". A case appears to have been made that, unless such simplification of Sanskrit or evolving of a Basic Sanskrit was achieved, the popularisation Sanskrit would be difficult. Of course, there is no gain-saving the fact that highly inflected languages like Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Old Arabic among classical languages and Russian and Finnish among modern languages do lack the grammatical simplicity of a language like English or Malay. But this need not make us feel that Sanskrit present insuperable difficulties. 66. The main lines along which the simplification of Sanskrit is generally advocated are these: (I) Abandoning, totally or partially, Sandhi within a sentence. This has some sanction both in usage and in rules of grammar, and does not, therefore, really amount to any innovation; (2) the abolotion of the dual number, which is supposed to be peculiar to Sanskrit; (3) the reducation of the tenses and the moods to the necessary minimum: present, one past, one future and one or two moods; (4) the use ofAtmanepada or Reflexive only to denote the passive; (5) the reduction of ten classes of roots (ganas); (6) liberal use of participles instead of inflected finite verbal forms; (7) the reduction of the number of roots and vocables to a basic minimum; and(8)freer use of roots like bhu and Kr. 67. Teh plea for such simplification of Sanskrit has been put forward by anumber of enthusiasts for Sanskrit who want to make it a popular language. But is has been also very strongly opposed by others who would not like a classical language, with sucha long history and with such a vast literature, to be treated in this cavalier fashion. They want to preserve the Sanskrit languages as Sanskrit language, and a desire to lop off certain living parts of the organism of Sanskrit as difficult or (considering only the case of the beginners) unnecessary, will, in their opinion, do more harm than good. Generally, those who are opposed to a Basic Sanskrit are in favour of teaching, in the elementary stages, just a simple form of the language, eschewing allthe complicated declensions and particularly the conjugational forms of the Verb. We know that, in ancient times aldo, when Sanskrit was becoming widely spead, there was a tacit acceptance of the position that the perfect and the aorist forms should berestricted in use. Down the centuries, attempts have always been made t produce easier grammars of Sanskrit. In actual practice also, some forms of literture have adopted simple Sanskrit. What this Commission would, therefore, sponsor is the teachingof graded Sanskrit to suit the age and capacity of the learner, rather then of a uniform simplified Sanskrit or Basic Sanskrit which seeks to tamper with the age-old Sanskrit grammar. The commission believes that, as the ultimate purpose of learning Sanskrit is to be able to understand and appreciate all the peotry, drama and philosophy in Sanskrit, the teaching of a mere Basic Sanskrit will be useless. At the same time, the commission is of opinion that, so long as the character of the Sanskrit languages is not tampered with, all attempts to simplify the teaching of Sanskrit by restricting the use of certain forms in the early stages or for certain types of students should be encouraged. (b) Sanskrit--A Classical Language or a Popular Language? 68. With regard to the teching as well as functioning of Sanskrit at the present day, there have been two sets of opinion, which are slightly opposed to each other but which cannot be said to be essentially antagonistic. One school suggests that sansskrit should be taught just as a classical language which is to be used on special occasions and in studying the old literary heritage of the country. this view is endorsed by alarge number of people who have an affection for Sanskrit and who would maintain its place in our national life only on a high pedestal or altar of honour. There is another point of view which is wqually supported both by old-style sanskrit scholars and present-day college-trained Professors, as well as educated lovers of Sanskrit. In this view, Sanskrit, in order to be an effective and fruitful language even at the present day, must be brought into popular use and should not remain in its own ivory tower of isolation. According to this second view, sanskrit, because ofa large number of its words being in everyday use in most of the Modern Indian Languages, is already very much with us in our daily avocations, although in an indirect way. And only a little propaganda and some scholarly endeavour would be enough to make it a living force in our lives. 69. It is suggested that, unless sanskrit is made a part of our daily lives, it can never be a living thing. Indeed, as Dr.C.V.Raman put it, no language could be said to be living unless it came out of the mouths of the people. It is generally agreed that Sanskrit can function effectively as a modern language expressive of present-day life. Sanskrit can be very well employed in dealing with current social, political, cultural, literary and other aspects of life in India, as well as for the discussion of matters like international politics and certain aspects science, particularly on the popular side. As pointed out else-where, ther is alsocurrently an inpressive out put of Sanskrit literature of every type. This in itself is indicative of the life and vitality of Sanskrit, which cannot and should not be suppressed. 13. Sanskrit Journals 70. India is unique in this that her classical languages still functions like any of her presentday living languages. Not only is sanskrit used very largely in conversation among persons belonging to the different parts of the country (as also belonging to the same part and speaking the same languages), but there is a large amount of literary activity in both prose, and verse, in serious philosophical and scientific subjects, and also in belles-letters, all over the country; and not the least item in this endeavour in keeping up Sanskrit as a living language is the publication of Sanskrit Journals from different parts of the country. 71. One of the earliest forms which the new literary activity in Sanskrit took, after contact with the west in modern times, was the SanskritJournals. The sanskrit Journal has played a valuable part in making Sanskrit a live medium of expression of contemporary thought and of discussion of current problems, and in infusing new life into that language. History, politics, sociology, modern science--all these have been dealt with in these Journals. The Sanskrit Journal can play a still more useful rolein bringing into Sanskrit a good deal of modern knowledge. a straight, simple and expressive prose style has grown in Sanskrit. This is perhaps the one most significant development in Sanskrit, at the present day, which it owes largely to these periodicals. The Sanskrit Journal has also kept the Sanskritist close to the creative activity in the various modern Inidan languages, and sometimes even in foreign languages by means of translations of some of the best literary creations in those languages.72. These Journals are published by enthusiasts for Sanskrit, and they are, most of them, run at a loss. The support they receive comes mainly from the various Sanskrit Institutions, Schools and Associations in the country, which themselves are in a very bad way financially. Naturally, Owing to financial reasons their printing and format are generally not at all up to the mark. In a matter like this, in order to make Sanskrit Journals popular, their general get-up-- Printing and paper and format--should be such as would invite the immediate attention of the people and make them feel inclined to read them just for the plesure of it. This psychological aspect of the matter must never be lost sight of, if we are to make the regular reading of a Sanskrit Journal popular among those who possess just a modicum of Sanskrit. This means that, the States and the Central Government should help the organisation or individulas, who bring them out, by making all State Institutions and Universities with humanistic subjects subscribe to these Journals. It would also be desirable of the Sahitya Studies as suggested by us, selected some representative Sanskrit Journals of standing and standard and extended to them some assistance. If some such help did not come forth, these Journals from the very nature of things would be doomed to gradual extinction. If Sanskrit studies were broad-based in the School, by making Sanskrit compulsory for all or at least for a large percentage of students, sanskrit Journals in a simple kind of Sanskrit and with attractive subjects would be of help by providing general reading material. 14. Popularisation of Sanskrit 73. It has been shown in the Chapter dealing with the Present Situation that though, at the traditional or modern school or college, the strength of students studying Sanskrit is meagre and is also gradually declining, out-side, in the society at large, there is a culturalawakening which is keenly alive to the need for learning and disseminating the knowledge of Sanskrit. Educated adults and those in retirement take to sanskrit privately, either individually or in groups, and derive solace through the study of the Ramayana or the Vedanta. Private classes as well as public expositions to select circles are organised, and these afford a source of employment to the Sanskrit Pandit. For instance, in a city like Madras, there are numerous study-circles of select exposition-groups of this type. Apart from this, there are also private classes or schools, organised by the Sanskrit Associations or enthusiastic individuals, to teach Sanskrit, privately and in out-of-school and out-of -office hours, to children, students and adults. There are agencies which conduct private examinations on a graded scheme. Some endowments and publishers bring out popular Sanskrit booklets, selections and texts with translations in local languages. In almost all the main cities and chief towns, there are Sanskrit Academies, Associations, Sabhas, Parisads, etc., which celebrate the days of important Sanskrit writers and arrange for popular lectures and publications. 74. There is, on the whole, a good deal of enthusiasm in the country for Sanskrit and its propagation; and this was quite evident from the receptions which this Commission was given at the different centres it visited. That this enthusiasm was taking apractical turn was clear, for there were many Asscociations and individulas in different parts of the country who were trying to devise methods to spread the knowledge of Sanskrit and to make more people learn it in an easier and quicker manner. consequently many new experiments in the simplification of the teaching methods, as also in the nature and standard of Sanskrit to be taught at different stages to the beginners, have been made in the country. some of these were demonstrated before us, and some have been set forth in publsihed booklets. A notice of such of these, as the Commission came to know at first hand or through the written evidence, is given here in the footnote. To the extent to which they are likely to introduce new learners into the Sanskrit language, all these experiments are to be welcomed. One thing, however, we might say, namely, that osme of these systems which are of a definite plan, being designed for the teaching of Sanskrit say of basic kind or of a purely grammatical form, within a set short period of three or six months, cannot, by their very nature, be adopted in Pathasalas or schools which have their own duration of courses and syllabus of study. But some ideas or principles of simplifying the learning process adopted by teachers in High Schools. We have however, to say that, considering the number of handbooks presenting methods of learning French, German, etc., 'without tears', and the many schools for foreign languages, the efforts put forth by Sanskritists on behalf of Sanskrit require to be stepped up, particularly in the preparation of books which can be used as self-instuctors. The Commission thinks that there is scope for further expansion of these four channels of popularisation: private schools or classes; private examinations; simplified teaching; and easy booklets and self-instructors. 75. Next come the voluntary associations, academies, etc., for Sanskrit. Though many cities and towns now have their Sanskrit Associations, there are yet several places where there are no such non-official organisations to keep up public interest in Sanskrit. Recently, at many centres, such Associations have taken the shape of branches of the Samskrata Visva Parised which has done much in the past few years for the creation of public opinion in favour of Sanskrit. The scopeof work for such Asscociations is unlimited and would depend on men and funds available to each. They may carry on all or some of the activities dealt with in this section: examination, teaching, lectures, publications, celebrations, etc. 76. Such Associations should regularly celebrate the days of Valmiki, Vyasa, Kalidasa, Sankara, the Bhagavad-Gita, etc., when selection from the above could be read out or sung, scenic enactments arranged for, and lectures given on these poets and works. At least five such days should be celebrated all over India, namely, those for Valmiki, Vyasa, Kalidasa, Sankara and the Gita. 77. While gatherings like the All-India Oriental Conference foster Research and vcover many other subjects besides Sanskrit, there is need for Conferences solely devoted to Sanskrit and its study and literary appreciation. In Bengal, the Sanskrit Sahitya Parisad organises such a Sanskrit Literary Conference. There is also the All India Sanskrit Sahitya Sammelana. In Rajasthan, ther is the Sanskrit Conference. The Sanskrit Visva Parisad holds an annual Conference at some famous centre of studies and thereby helps to focus attention on questions relating to Sanskrit. The growth of Sanskrit Literary Conferences forms an important part of the general movement for the promotion of sanskrit. Therefore, such conferences should be encouraged in every State. It would be desirable better planned, conducted in a more systematic manner and transacted business in the form of papers, discussions, symposia, readings from original composition in Sanskrit, and so on. 78. Fortunately for Sanskrit, it has a rich contribution in the fields of music, dance and drma. The Gita-govinda is still sung and rendered in gesticulation. The national art of dance, in its different forms, is directly based on Bharata's Natya-Sastra and the later literature which follows Bharata. Al this could be more effectively used to popularise Sanskrit. Indian drama attained its highest development in Kalidasa and Sudraka; yet. today, there is no permanent organisation with the necessaryresources to put on boards Sanskrit plays regularly for the enjoyment of the public. No doubt, here and there, in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta, and also in a few other centres, amateur associations exist which stage Sanskrit dramas. in Colleges, on special occasions of anniversaries or conferences, students and teachers produce Sanskrit plays. All this is but a meagre effort. The Sanskrit stage should be rebuilt and made part of the regular cultural relaxation of the nation. The Sanskrit stage hadin the past exerted its influence all over the East up to Japan and over the whole of Indonesia, and its idealised and imaginative technique, integrating the three arts of peotry, song and dance including gesticulation--as it is still prevalent in south-East Asia--stands in contrast to the realistic presentations of th modern Western stage. Research into this indigenous stage-technique should be carried out. It is to be hoped that the Central Sangita Nataka Akademi, which is comtemplating the starting of a National School of Drama, will give thought to this and help the coming into being of an active Sanskrit stage. Just as in England there are Shakespeare Festivals, India should celebrate once a year a Kalidasa festival when all the plays of the poet should be produced and his peoms musically or otherwise recited. The present Finance Minister told this Commission that not only could such a Kalidasa Festival be helped by Government, but that there were other ways also in which the auditory and aesthetic appeal of Sanskrit, in its Vedic, hymnal and other recitals, could be helped, with a view to promoting and keeping up the popular interest in sanskrit. 79. While on the subject of the auditory and aesthetic appeal of Sanskrit and the scope afforded by the rich dramatic literature in that language, we might also speak of the way in which the All India Radio could effectively help the cause pf popularising Sanskrit. Thanks to the present Minister of Information and Broadcasting, DR B.V. Keskar, and the former Secretary of the Ministry, th elate P.M.Lad, the All India Radio had recently been doing some good service for Sanskrit. The talk which this Sommission had with Dr.Keskar was very fruitful in this respect The Radion now provides fo rtalks, in English and the regional languages, on Sanskrit topics, as also talks in Sanskrit itself on such topics, in some of its stations. Celebrations of the Kalidasa Day, weekly fifteen minutes' programme in Sanskrit and three-monthly Magazine programmes are aldo on the schedule now. As we are writing this Report, we find that the All India Radio has started Sanskrit lessons for the benefit of young learners. In its overseas broadcast also, the All India Radio has many talks on Sanskrit literature. This commission would like to suggest a few more lines of work in Sanskrit which the All India Radio could easily add to their Sanskrit Schedules. The All India Radio organises, from time to time, the Sahitya Samaroha in which are included all the Indian languages except Sanskrit; this omission should be rectified, especially as today there is a considerable out-put of current creative literature in Sanskrit.Similarly, the All India Radio conducts periodical contests in Radio Plays in the Indian languages; Sanskrit, which is omitted here, should be included in this competition also, for, the All India Radio has regular Sanskrit features and the calling for new plays in Sanskrit would place in their hands material which they could readily use. Actual renderings from the Sanskrit Classics, especially from the epics, the Gita, etc., with explanations in the mother-tongue, at present done occasionally and only in some Stations, should be introduced in all Stations. As we have pointed out in the earlier Chapters,Sanskrit is rich in Subhasitas or moral saying and maxims which can be effectively put across to the wide listening public; the Radio may use one Subhasita every day, have it musically recited and explained in the mother-tongue, either as the day's programme opens with the signal in the morning or closes down at night. Sanskrit programmes in all the Stations are now looked after as an additionalcharge by the General Programme Assistants; the Commission recommends that Sanskritists of required qualifications should be recruited as Sanskrit producers in all Stations. Care should also be taken to see that the Sanskrit programmes offered by the all India Radio go on air at hours convenient for listening. 80. Elsewhere we have touched upon the important question of improving the pronunciation of sanskrit in those parts of the country where it is defective. Nothing could be more helpful in this direction than the all India Radio. In some of its Northern and Eastern Stations, is should employ for it sSanskrit programmes good speakers of Sanskrit from the Deccan and South India. Recording of Sanskrit programmes from the Stations of the Deccan and the South could be also used in these Northern and Eastern Stations. 81. The All India Radio, we were told, was considering the question of making Vedic recordings; it was at the suggestion of Acharya Vinoba Bhave that is was first seized of this matter. As has been pointed out by ius in the Section dealing with Vedic recital, the traditon of Vedic recitals is fast dwindling. The All India Radio, which is a government Department and can command all resources, should come forward to make a Tape-record Library of Vedic recitals. As the Radio has a major interest in music, it would naturally find it useful to record the different schools and styles ofchanting of the Samaveda, which are current in the country. Along with this, it should also undertake the preservation on Tape of the whole of th Rgveda, the oldest body of Indian poetry and sacred literature. As the Rgveda was also the oldest surviving literature of the Indo-European world, Sanskrit scholars in India and abroad would regard this recording as an event of great significance. This whole matter was discussed by this Commission at top-level, and it appeared that such an important cultural project would receive the required support from the Government on the financial side. We would urge upon Government to make the required allotments for these recordings. 82. The Film Division of the Information Ministry could render the necessary help for producaing short feature-films of some outstanding plays or select scenes from Sanskrit, such as the Sakuntala, tha Mrcchakatika, the Meghaduta, the Gita-govinda, portions and dialogues from the two national epics, etc. Vedic recitals and Sanskrit hymnvoices could be synchronised in the pictures of temples, festivals, etc. Which the Film Division produces from time to time. 83. Elsewhere we have touched upon the ceremonial use of Sanskrit for which its back-ground, sound and diction are admirably suited. The incresed use of Sanskrit by the Public and the State as a common All-India Ceremonial Language will contribute to its further popularity. 84. The Press in India, of which we met some leading representatives, generally supports the cause of Sanskrit. It has given a great fillip to both academic and cultural activities in the field of Sanskrit. Though, from its coverage, the Press appearsto be primarily concerned with politics, the leading papers run literary pages and give some space to literary articles in their weekly magazine sections. In the nature of things, the Press devotes more attention to 'news' of political or other arresting importance, and purely literary matters have to take a secondary place. Often music, dance and films take precedence among cultural matters. It may be pointed out that some more attention could be devoted to literary activities. at least, the weekly or monthly periodicals could afford greater space to Sanskrit and allied subjects. Some papers carry, at some prominent place, select wise sayings from the great thinkers and philosophers of the world. India and Sanskrit are store-houses of such wisdom, but seldom does one find the treasury of Sanskrit Subhasitas being drawn upon by the newspapers. We suggest that it would be a step in the direction of bringing Sanskrit writings into the widest public notice if, for this "Thought for the Day", our newspaper also used Sanskrit Subhasitas in translations in English and local languages press has developed today to a great extent, and if it spared adequate space for articles, appreciations, select renderings, stories, etc., in or relating to Sanskrit, it would be giving practical and effective help to the popularisation of Sanskrit and its sontribytions among the masses. 85. Publication in the regional languages has also taken tremendous strides in the recent past. As pointed out elsewhere, Sanskrit has always grown side by side with the regional languages, even using the same regional script. All the great classics in Sanskrit have been made available through old translations or adaptation or derivative creations in the regional languages. We saw some sustained efforts in this direction, such as in Madras, where the Kamakoti Kosasthanam and the Ramakrishna Math hadbrought out Sanskrit hymns and sacred writings, in Tamil and Grantha scripts with Tamil translations. 86. As soon as the printing press become well-established, local scholars did poineering work making available to the reading public almost all the leading Sanskrit Classics, the Epics and Puranas. The Bangavasi Press inder the guidance of Mahamahopadhyaya Pandit Panchanana Tarkaratna and the Basumati Press, Calcutta, brough out in Bengali script the Epic, Puranas, Dharma-Sastra texts, works of Kalidasa, and other Sanskrit works. In the South, Vavilla Ramaswami Sastrulu and Sons did similar work forSanskrit through the Telugu script. In the Tamil country, the Sri Vidya and the Sarada Vilas Presses, Kumbhakonam, the Sastra Sanjivani Press, Madras, and several others, at Kanchi, Tiruvayyaru, Palghat and other centres of sanskrit learning, brought out almost all the important works of Sanskrit in Kerala, the Keralamitram and the Keralakalpadruman Presses, Trichur, and the Vidyaratnaprabha Press, Kunnankulam, were pioneers in publishing Sanskrit works in the Malayalam script. In Mysore, the State itself started a lithograph Press for this purpose, and the Vicharadarpana Press, Bangalore, also published Sanskrit texts in teh Kannada script. The Venkateswara Press, Bombay, and a host of Presses all over North India, brough out numerous editions of Sanskrit texts with Hindi translations. The Arya Samaj and the Svadhyaya Mandala of Pandit S.D.Satavalekar did similar service for the Veda. Panditaraja Atombapu Sarma, through his Chudachand Press, Imphal (Manipur), popularised Sanskrit works through Manipuri. Among the former Native States, Baroda and Mysore took a lead in this matter of popular cultural publications through their Sayajirao Sahitymala and the Jayachmara-Jendra Grantha-Ratnamala respectively. The Gita Press, Gorakhpur, is making a laudable endeavour to put in the hands of the people, at the chepest price, the Gita, the Gita, the Epics, the Puranas, etc., some of these with Hindi and English translations. 87. There is still considerable scope for translating several Sanskrit classics into simple prose of these modern languages. It is sad to reflect that, while a powerful language like English having the greatest world-wide vogue still thinks it necessary to put out English translation of works in Sanskrit--plays, poems, stories, scientific and historical works, etc.--some of the Indian languages are yet to enrich themselves with such translations . In Bombay and Poona, publishing firms are bringing out, in short compass, attrative booklets, giving abridged versions and accounts of all major Sanskrit poems and plays in Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, etc. However, there is yet no systematic project to have such Sanskrit works of general interest as the Kathasaritsagara, the Artha-Sastra, the Rajataran-gini, and the Natya-Sastra translated into all the Indian languages. This Commission would recommend this work to the SahityaAkademi and its regional counterparts, which, we know, have already thought of this as part of their programme of work. 88. There have been systematic attempts in Europe to bring the Greek and Latin classics to the average educated persons by means of translation in the more important languages of Europe, like English, French and German. But the original texts also weresought to be made accessible, on a large scale, along with translations in a modern language, for the first time, it would appear, in France. Now the bulk of the Greek and Latin classics in the original, with the English and French translation face to face, has been made available in fine and attractive editions. The Loeb Classical Library for English readers is very well known, and is now practically indispensable for any cultured man. The Commission strongly recommends that the Sahitya Akademi do take in hand a similar series of representative Sanskrit texts, particularly in literature and philosophy, in an attractive edition, the Sanskrit texts in Devanagari on one page and a translation in English on the other, for use not only in India but also abroad. The Akademi should also bring out, in cooperation with the different State Academies now coming up, a similarseries of sanskrit texts with translation in the Indian languages. 89. Such work has been and is being done by various private bodies. For example, in Allahabad, the Panini Office did admirable work in bringing out in English, through their Sacred Books of India Series, Puranas, works on philosophy and the two most useful publications giving the Astadhyayi and the Siddhanta-Kaumudi (with English Translation and Notes). In Madras, G.A.Natesan and Company have brought out Selections from the Epics, the Upanisads, the works of Sanskara, etc., with Devanagari text and English translation. In Calcutta, Bombay and Poona, a considerable number of Sanskrit Classics have been published for college students with Introduction, Translation and Notes in English . The Ramakrishna Mission has also been popularising Sanskrit religious and Philosophical Classics in the original with translations in English and in the main moden Indian languages. In recent years, the "Book University" of the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan has been bringing out a popular series of books in English on theEpics and other aspects of Indian Literature and Culture. 90. As regards the Sanskrit originals themselves, many of them are not available in print in the Devanagari script. In fact, the Sanskrit book industry is at a low ebb; great Sanskrit printers and publishers like the Nirnaya Sagara Press of Bombay and the Chowkhamba Publishing House of Banaras, who have magnificently served the cause of Sanskrit in the past, are working under serious handicaps today. In several centres, even compositors are difficult to get for Sanskrit printing work. There is need now for a fresh drive to bring out at a moderate price a series of Sanskrit texts--poems, plays and other works--in the style of the old Kavyamala Series. A large number of unpublished short works can be issued in collections like the old Kavyamala Gusshaka series. Even classics once published are out of print and out of stock and require to be reprinted. For instance, one cannot get today a copy of the Rajatarangini. An average Sanskrit scholar cannot afford to possess bigger works like the Vedas or the Mahabharata. It is unfortunate that, while Sanskrit enthusiasts are eloquent about the need to promote Sanskrit studies, ther is not even a singlw standard Sanskrit Dictionary of handy size available. It is also necessary to prepare a Dictonary of Sanskrit Words current in the Regional Languages, which as some witnesses suggested, would be a great help for popularising sanskrit. even some Classics which are available such as the Ramayana or Kalidasa's poems and plays, should be brought out in more attractive and handy forms, and made available to the public at nominal prices. The Commission has received several representations that the Sahitya Akademi should come forward to help Sanskrit literature in this respect. We know that the Sahitya Akademi has programmed to bring out cheap standard editions of Kalidasa's works and new anthosogies of Sanskrit poetry and Subhasitas. This Commission would recommend that all the leading Classics of Sanskrit should be brought out in a uniform size by the Sahitya Akademi and offered to the nation at a nominal price. A men of Letters Series for Sanskrit and Prakrit poets and writers and Series of studies on Indian Philosophers on the lines of Blackwood's Philosophical Classics are long over-due. There is noe the National Book Trust of India where Sanskrit works in original as well as translations from and into Sanskrit can be undertaken. WithIndia now enjoying a high status in international affairs, and with a large number of foreigners visiting the country, there is a growing demand at the book-shops for old Indian literature--the poetry of Kalidasa, the play of Sudraka, the romance of Bana, the fables and stories of the Panchatantra and kathasaritsagara, the Artha-Sastra, the Epics, the Upanisads and the Gita. It is not necessary that all this work should be done directly by the Sahitya Akademi or the National Book Trust and printed andpublished by Government itself; private bodies and literary institutions working in the field who are trying to bring out such serial publications may also be financially helped to bring them out. 91. The Sahitya Akademi, as a body set up for the literary development of Indian languages, should devise ways and means to help Sanskrit grow on new lines also. Thus, since much headway can be made by Sanskrit through children's literature should beproduced in Sanskrit, and, for this, the Sahitya Akademi may announce prizes. Some witnesses suggested that suitable literature for ladies should also be published in Sanskrit. There is ample material for all this in Sanskrit; only the lead and encouragement to organise and present that material on these fresh lines are needed. CHAPTER XI ADMINISTRATION AND ORGANISATION OF SANSKRIT EDUCATION AND RESEARCH I. In the previous Chapters we have made a number of suggestions and recommendations concerning, various aspects of Sanskrit Eduaction, in Schools, Colleges and Pathasalas, and the different activities connected with Advanced Studies and Research in the field of Sanskrit carried on by the Universities and other official and non-officaial agencies. All these suggestions and recommendations naturally involve details of administration and organisation. We proposed to consider in this Chapter in a general way some of these administrative and organisational questions. Trust and Endowments 2. First ann formost comes the question of Finance. The wide scope of our inquiry and the all-embracing character of our recommendations might give rise to the impression that the impementation of these recommendations would involve an expenditure which, in view of the present position of the country, the Government was likely to consider a heavy financial burden. We, however, desire to emphasis that the promotion of Sanskrit, even in the most ideal way, would not entail an inordinately heavy financial bruden on the Government. fortunately, Sanskrit studies are not with out their own resources. 3. All over the country, and more particularly in some States like Uttar Pradesh, Bombay, Panjab, and all the States in South India, there are numerous Endowments and Trusts intended for the promotion of Sanskrit Studies. Some of these are, however, diverted for other purpose by the local managements and authorities, some mismanaged by those responsible for them, and some allowed to lie in a moribund state. If only the Central and the State Governments took more active interest in the proper utilisation, management and revitalisation of these Endowments and Trusts, they would find considerable resources for the running of Sanskrit institutions. Besides these, there are also temples, Maths and other religious establishments of importance with largesurpluses which might be used for the most legitimate purpose of promoting Sanskrit. There are of course the great temples of South India. But, even in State like Bombay, there are 327 Trusts, big and small, and we were told by the Representative of that Government that there was an accumulation of a sum of Rupees six crores from the Religious Charity Trusts which had remained unused. There have been proposals that this amount might be utilised for the promotion of Sanskrit, and we too think that would be the most proper object for which this and other surpluses of this kind could be applied. In Kerala, besides the surplus available with the Devaswam Board which gets 60 lakhs a year, ther are resources available with another body called the Religious Endowment Fund, as also with the Sankara Maths, each of which has an annual income of Rs.50,000. similarly, if all the Nambudiri Trusts are pooled together, about three to four lakhs would be available; and there would be no object cleser to the hearts of these great custodians of Sanskrit than the promotion of its study. 4. It must not be forgotten that the Central and the State Governments also have to bear responsibility in respect of the promotion of Sanskrit. Sanskrit had been patronised down the ages by the Rulers, the Zamindars and the wealthy members of the society. It is well known that some of the former Princely States were great patrons of Sanskrit; even so the zamindars. On account of the merger of the former States and the abolition of the Zamindaries, Sanskrit has been deprived of its main support. The taking over of the States and the Zamindaries by the Government of Independent India naturally means that most of the obligations of these States and Zamindaries now devolve on the Union and the State Government. It would, therefore, not be too much to suggest that, where transfer of authority and possession has affected Sanskrit Institutions and the maintenance of the families of Sanskrit scholars, the Government should devise some way of continuing the support that Sanskrit Pathasalas and scholars had been deriving from the old set-up. We were informed by some eminent eitnesses of Mysore that State had included in its legislation proper provision for the safeguard of the cultural institutions and charities, which had been flourishing under the original estates. In the absence of such a safeguard, the Government should, from their general funds under education, etc., help the unkeep of these institutions and scholars. 5. There are numerous Sanskrit institutions which depends on land endowments; and the agrarian reforms which have been revently introduced in various States have adversely affected these institutions. This is another matter which this Commission wants to press upon the Governments for their earnest consideration. 6. We would like here to draw attention to what the President of India had to say on the subject of the responsiblity of the Governments in the matter of the promotion of Sanskrit. In his speech at the inauguration of the Second Session of the SamskrtaVisva Parisad held at Banaras. Dr. Rajendra prasad said: "The first problem before us is a provision of finances for Sanskrit Pathasalas. The sources from which they drew sustenance are getting dried up........ The Fact of the matter is that so many facets of th present-day society are controlled by Gvoernment that without Government shouldering th eburden of financing these institutions there is little hope of this work continuing any further. I belive State Governments could do something in this direction. the time for allocation of funds for the studyof Sanskrit has come. when these Governments are nationalsing the means of the production of wealth, there seems no reason why they should not also shoulder the responsibility so far borne by the society". 7. In the course of its tours, the Commission not only came to know of a considerable number of Trusts and Endowments for Sanskrit in different States, but was also told how, in the modern times and more particularly in the recent decades, these Sanskrit Trusts had been diverted to aline purposes. Often, these funds are being diverted to secular charitable purposes, simply because some trustees desire to do so. In Uttar Pradesh alone, we were informed, nearly 150 Trusts intended for the advancementof Sanskrit had been utilised for opening English and other Schools. So also is the case with Bombay, Madras, Andhra, Kerala, etc. The Maratha Rajas of Tanjore had made large endowments for the study of Veda and Sanskrit at Tiruvayyaru and other places in the District. Their Chatram charities alone comprised twenty endowments intended for Sanskrit and Anna-dana; out of these endowments, English schools have been founded. The great-grandson of th last Ruler of Tanjore represented, in his oral as well as written evidence, that the words of Raja Sarfoji were specific as regards the objective of these charities, and that Government should, therefore, give a directive for the restoration of these endowments to their original objective. 8. The object of the trust should be kept as near about the original one as possible. that "the desire of the donor is paramount" and that "it is only when the object of charity fails that a similar object should be substituted" are principles which are always to be kept in view. There can be no question of applying the doctrine of cy pres until it is clearly established that the intention of the donor cannot be carried into effect. If the donor has clearly pointed out what he wants to be done with the donation and if his directions are not contrary to law, the Court is bound to carry out thatintention into effect and has no right to speculate upon whether is would not have been more expedient or beneficial if the donor had chosen a different object. The duty of the Courts is to give effect to the directions of the donor, when they are not open to objection of the ground of public policy, and the Court ought not to consider whether those directions are wise or whether a more beneficial application of the testator's property may not be found. These are very wise and well-known judicial pronouncements. The Court has no right to set aside the wishes of the donor and substitute another charity simply becouse it is considered more useful. The executors also are bound to carry out the directions of the Will. It is not proper on their partto obtain probate of a Will, and, even while acting as ministers of the Will, to regard themselves as so much wiser and better than the pious testator. 9. Maths are mainly religious institutions, and it has been recognised that their primary purpose is the maintenance of a competent line of religious teachers for the advancement of religious and piety, the promotion of religious knowledge, the imparting of spiritual instruction to the disciples and the followers of the Math and the maintenance of the doctrines of the particular schools of religion and philosophy. Where idols are connected with a Math, the worship of these idols also is a part of the activity of the Math. As indicated in the previous Chapter, in places where the old religious life and traditions are still continuing without disintegration, as is the case in many parts, of India, Particulary in South India, there are in existence a large number of Maths and monasteries, both of the Hindus and the Jainas. Alongside of these Maths and monasteries, there are also temples of deities. These religious institutions are amply endowed. They hold large properties and have also a recurring income from their pios followers. The income of these endowments is utilised in the first instance for the maintenance of these Maths and monasteries and the worship in the temples. In spite of this first charge upon this income there remains a substantial surplus in the case of these religious institutions and endowments. 10. This Commission is of the view, and many witnesses who appeared before this Commission have also urged upon it the same view, that these surplus funds of religoius endowments should be applied only for objects which have been, broadly spealing, recognised as religious, and not for secular charitable objects. We must not ignore the feelings of those who have made donations for religious pupose. These religious endowments of the Maths., monasteries and temples have come into existence as the result of the liberal donations made in the past by the pious followers who had a devout religious feeling. In many cases, these Maths, monasteries and temples have either Trustees or Managing Committess. This Commission is of the opinion that, even if the Trustees or the Managing Committees desired to divert the surplus funds of these religious institutions for secular charitable objects, this should not be permitted to be done. 11. The question of applying the doctrine of cypres arises only when the original object of the charity fails. either because it has become impossible or impracticable to carry it out, or because it is contrary to public policy to do so. Sy pres means'as nearly as pssible to that which has failed. But in applying this principle of cy pres, the funds will have to be applied only to an object which is as near as possible to the original object which has failed. 12. So far as religious endowments, Maths, monasteries and temples are concerned, it has been the generally accepted view that the surplus funds of these religious endowments can be and should be used for the advancement of Sanskrit, education of priests and religious teachers, research in and spread of Hindu Culture, and establishing institutions for research in Indian philosophy, History and Literature. Broadly speaking, these objects have been recognised as religious objects. As a matter of fact,many temples, Maths and monasteries have these objects specifically mentioned as part of Ista. Sanskrit studies have always been regarded as Ista and consistently been accepted as part of the religious objects of the Maths, temples and monasteries. The surplus funds should be spent for those ideas for which these religious institutions had been founded. Education in Vedas, Agama and Sanskrit has been regarded, from time immemorial, as an additional charge on the funds of these religious institutions.13. But this Commission noted with regret that the application of the surplus funds of these institutions was not satisfactory. Sometimes, the management, which is often appointed by the Government, diverted this surplus fund to needs and objects, which were inconnected with those particular religious objects and were only secular charitable objects. it may be noted that enactments like the Bombay Public Trusts Act of 1950 (Section 9) clearly disinguish a religious purpose from a charitable purpose. A religious fund can and should diverted cy pres only to a similar religious purpose. It has been noted that, in many States, the prevailing political ideology rather than the legality of the original aims and objects of the said religious endowments influences the disposal of these funds, and the main religious objects are ignored. 14. If endowments of religious charities were permitted to be applied to other secular charitable objects, it would be in the nature of giving a blank cheque to the authorities concerned to ignore the wishes of the original settlor and subsequest donors. This is the surest way of discouranging persons form making religious endowments; for, these persons would always have the apprehension that, after they had made the endowments some authority might think that the objects, for which the endowments had been made, had ceased to be of any public utility or benefit and that the said authority might direct a part or the whole of the surplus of these endowments to be applied to some other object, which such authority considered to be beneficial to the community at the time of giving his own directions. This is, again, the surest way of doing violence to and disregarding the wishes of the people who had made the original endowments, and of denying thereby to Sanskrit studies the support which they had intended to give. 15. The Commission, therefore, suggests, that the Central Government should pass an appropriate legislation prohibiting the diversion of the surplus funds of these religious institutions to other secular charities and insisting upon the utilisation of those funds for objects, which are, broadly speaking recognised as religious objects, such as the advancement of Sanskrit, Indian culture, Religion and philosophy. The said legislation should also provide that, where the income of the Trusts specifically ear-marked for the advancement of Sanskritic studies are diverted to other cecular charities even with the concurrence of the Trustees and after the order of the Courts, such income should be re-diverted, from the date of the legislation, to the advancement of Sanskritic studies. The said legislation should further provide for the proper management of the funds of religious endowments. 16. The Commission noted that a number of endowments for Sanskrit were being mismanaged in a flagrant manner, or were completely neglected and were not functioning at all. In some places, witnesses gave to this Commission a list of such endowments in the neighbourhood and stresses the need for undertaking a complete survey of the Sanskrit endowments available. We would endorse this suggestion and recommend that the Government should, through the Revenue or other appropriate Separtments and with thehelp of the local public, institute an Official Survey of all the Endowments--big and small-for Sanskrit in the country, set aright the mis-management, pool together the non-viable endowments, and put to proper use those that had become moribund. It isexpected that the Government will, by means of such drive on their part, unearth ample financial resources to help the cause of Sanskrit. The Central Board of Sanskrit 17. we have already made out a case that the Central Government ought to bestow special earlier Chapters, we have made several proposals, which necessarily presuppose constant attention, co-ordination and direction from the centre. Above all, in respect of Sanskrit , there ought to be a Central Policy which, as in other educational matters, the States should be advised to follow. There are also some organisational and administrative matter of an all-India character, such as the enforcing of uniform standards in teaching, scales of salaries, aid to institutions etc. For all such purpose, it is necessary for the Government to set up a Central Board of Sanskrit. From what we have seen of the proceedings of the Central Board of Secondary Education, the question of the study of Sanskrit in schools does not even figure in them. The Central Board of Sanskrit, as we envisage it, will not be merely an advisory and deliberative bodylike other Central Boards such as those of Education, Archaeology, etc., but will have the necessary funds at its disposal like the centrally sposored Academics it will be something like a Central Sanskrit Grants commission. 18. On this question, we made extensive enquiries. The majority of our witnesses said that, unless such a 'watch-dog' was established, Sanskrit,which was a neglected subject, could never get its due. we would here set forth certain views expressed before us by anumber of witnesses with some vehemence. The ploans for developing local languages, they complained, fully engrossed the attention of the States; some States were apathetic to Sanskrit, and in one State, there was obvious antipathy and every small opportunity was seized to relegate Sanskrit to a still further backward place in the scheme of education. though education is a State subject, it was argued that States, which looked up to the Centre for many things including finances, should not formulate their own indepandent policies in respect of a languages of all-India character and importance like Sanskrit. They should not ignore an all-India policy laid down by the Centre in respect of Sanskrit. some witnesses even went to the extent of saying that Sanskrit should be made a Central subject. some said that, as in the case of the Harijan welfare, in the matter of the Pathasalas and Pandits also, who are as much 'Depresses'. there should be a special Central Department. 19. We would like to state our reaction to the views mentioned above. we have argued in the Chapter on Sanskrit Education and elsewhere that Sanskrit is part and parcel of one's mother-tongue, and that is should be taught in close relation with the regional language. It would, therefore, not be proper to absolve the States completely from their responsibilities to promote Sanskrit Education. But we would suggest that, as in the case of the University Education, the Central Government should express, in a tangible form, their interest in and anxiety for developing Sanskrit by making Sanskrit a Special Concurrent subject and by setting up a Central Board for Safeguarding it. 20. some eminent educationists have stronsly supported the proposal for Central Sanskrit Board. The present Chairman of the University Grants Commission not only favoured the stting up of a Central Sanskrit Board might have an amount of two crores placed at its disposal annually. We mention this to show that serious though has been bestowed by several reponsible persons on the subject of the promotion of Sanskrit, and that is is not out of an all-out enthusiasm for Sanskrit that a Central Board is being asked for. There were other distinguished educationists who said that, instead of a separate Board, a Sanskrit Section may becreated under the present University Grants Commission. We do not facour this idea. For, we are clear about one thing: while, in an advisory capacity, the Central Board, as we visualise it, may make recommendations in all matters concerning Sanskrit studies, including those that come under the purview of the University Sanskrit Education, the Board is expected also to deal, from the administrative and financial points of view, with Sanskrit activities points of view, with Sanskrit activities outside the University, firstly, the Pathasalas, and, secondly the privately organised Research Institutes and Parishads in the country. 21. Some concrete ways how this board could help may be indicated here. In one of the southern State, under the pretext of falling strenth, Sanskrit teachers in service are being given notice, year after year, and students desirous of taking Sanskrit are being 'cornered', so to say, to take the local languages. if the argument advanced under these circumstances is that it is not economical to provide for Sanskrit teachers when the demand is poor, the Central Board may not only lay down the policy that the provision for the study of Sanskrit must always be available, whatever the strength, but mayalso, if necessary, make a contribution towards the cost of maintaining Sanskrit teachers. Similarly, in the case of the Pathasalas, we have found that the salaries which are being paid to the Pandits are ridiculously poor. The Pandits who have mastered two or three Sastras are being paid less than postal peons and attendants. One may ask, without appearing to be rhetorical, how it redounds to the credit of anynation to have a category of scholars and teachers in such a wretched condition. The buildings wheresome Pathasalas are allowed to hold their classes are pitifully dilapidated. If the general Secondary Schools were to have such buildings, the Deparment of Education would come down upon them and not allow them to go on. One of the chief recommendations made by us elsewhere is that the salaries of the Pathasala teachers should be raised so as to be on a par with corresponding cadres in modern Schools and Colleges. We have not suggested any definite scales of salaries for the Pathasalas, but we have laid down the general principle that the pandits, whether in sanskrit Schools or Colleges or Universities, should receive the same scales as the teachers in the corresponding modern institutions. Also, we think that some allotments need to be made for making the Pathasala buildings look less dilapidated and for making the hostels attached to them afford better living conditions to young students. While there is no free-income at all for most of the Pathasalas, there are several of them functioning on small and limited resources; they cannot afford any measures of upgrading and may even suffer extinction owing to this policy of up-grading. In such cases, the Central Board should be able to make grants towards the improvement of the buildings, hostels, libraries, etc. 22. In addition to providing better salaries to Sanskrit teachers, our recommendations include proposals for the development and reorganisation of the Pathasalas which, again, many institutions would not be able to implement without some extenernal aid. Our proposals for improving and re-vitalising the traditional tupe of study contemplate the introduction in the curriculum of some modern subjects, the employment of trained teachers, the addition of Research Departments to Sanskrit Colleges, the award of stipends and scholarships, and the stting up of the Sanskrit University as the apex of the system. There is then the question of the privately organised Research Institutions in the country--the help which they require and the need to bring them under some system of co-ordination and planned functioning. all these proposals cannot be carried out except through a Central Board which is capable of over-all direction and financial assistance. We have recommended elsewhere the establishment of one or more Sanskrit Universities. The Central Sanskrit Board should be the highest authority under whose aegis the sanskrit Universities would come into being and function. 23. we have also mentioned the need to undertake a country-wide Survey of Endowments for Sanskrit. In the matter of such a survey, again, the Central Board may take the initiative with the authority of the Government. Similarly, is should be one of the fundtions of the Central Board to advise the Government in the matter of the State honours and patronage to Sanskrit Pandits to which we have referred elsewhere in the Report. 24. Under its advisory capacity which, as we have already stated, may cover the entire filed of Sanskrit studies, the Central Board should be concerned, among other things, with the formation of the patterns of Sanskrit Education at different levels, the co-ordination of courses, teaching, publication and similar other activities, the standardisation of syllabuses, examinations and degrees; and the defining of the qualifications required for different types of Sanskrit teachers and research-guides. Itcan also work out many other lines on which it may help traditional Sanskrit learning and its representatives, such as the exploring of the venues of employment of the Pandits both in the direct field of Sanskrit and in the fields where Sanskrit equipment is desirable. 25. As regards the constitution of the Central Board, it should be an Autonomous Statutory Body composed of members representing all the parts of India and all aspects of Sanskrit Education--modern and traditional, academic and administrative. There are two other Central Organisations which we have recommended, namely, the Central Indological Institute and the Central Manuscripts Survey. The Central Indological Institute will be an independent body, for its scope is very wide. But, as we have emphasised in the Chapter on Research, the Institute will have a strong Sanskrit Section as its core. To that extent, therefore, the Board and the Institute may work together. The Manuscripts Survey may either work along with the Institute or be looked afterby the Central Sanskrit Board. The Central Sanskrit Board, the Central Indological Institute and the Central Manuscripts Survey should have mutual representations on their respective Managing Committess. Sanskrit Studies in the States 26. We have also to make some suggestions regarding the administration of Sanskrit studies at the State level. First of all, we may refer to the Sanskrit Inspectorate. In UttarPradesh, there is the largest number of Sanskrit Schools and Colleges. The Government of that State has bow recognised what are called the Adarsa-Pathasalas or the new reorganised Sanskrit Schools. As already pointed out in Chapter V, many of these reorganised Pathasalas evade the provisions of reorganisation and defeat thevery purpose of reorganisation, by not arranging, among other subjects. We were alos told that the number of Inspectors in uttar Pradesh was so small and their visits so few and far between that many Sanskrit Schools had never been inspected at all bythe educational officers. Ther is need to strengthen the Sanskrit Inpectorate in such States, and also ensure a strict encorcement of the reorganisation requirements. 27. In Rajasthan, witnesses of all shades of opinion strondly advocated that sanskrit should be a subject to be directly dealt with by the Secretary of the Education Department and not by the Director of Public Instruction. there is some point in thissuggestion, and we might discuss this question a little here. The scope of Education has now become very wide. It has many extended branches like technology, crafts, rural, primary and secondary schools, University, and so on. The administrative set-up which the British Government had ordained at the time of the beginnings of modern education in India cannot be regarded as capable of coping with such eomplexity and specialised developments. From the point of view of knowledge, capacity or interest, a single person, as Director of Public Instruction, can hardly be expected to control and direct effectively all these aspects of education. We, therefore, think that the time has come to break up the monolithof the Directorate of Public Instruction in a State into separate Directorates for University Education, for Teachnology, etc. In such a split-up, Sanskrit should have a separate Director. It might not be necessary to make this whole set-up unwieldy by providing for a Director-General above all these Directors, for, the various Directors could directly deal with the Education Secretary, who should have under him different Sections--one of them pertaining specially to Sanskrit studies in the State.It would also be desirable if each of these Directors of Special Section s of Education, like Sanskrit with which we are concerned here, had some non-official State Advisory Committee to help him. In some States, the number of the Pathasalas may be small, but sanskrit studies are far wider than the Pathasalas. Every State should, therefore, have such Director of Sanskrit Studies and a non-officaial Advisory Committee. Status of Pandit Teachers 28. In connection with the general move towards improving the status of traditional teachers of Sanskrit we have made certain suggestions of administrative character which we desire to bring together here. In Universitites and Colleges, there should be equality in status and salary between Professors and Pandits. already such equalty has come into force in many Universities, and we hope that it will be soon given effect to all over the country. In the various University authorities, like the Senate, the Academic Council and the Executive Council, the traditional Pandits do not generally have any place. Even where the universities conduct examinations for the Pathasalas, the products of these latter institutions are not entitled to exercise their votes or become members of such bodies. The equalisation of status, for which we have pleaded, should also remedy this state of affairs. As part of this equalisation, we further suggest that the courses of the traditional type should be made into Degree Courses, and thus the sense of inferiority implied by the term, 'Diploma' or 'Title', should be removed. The students who pass the higher Sanskrit examinations should get all the privileges of the University degree-holders. 29. So long as the reorganisation of the Pathasalas and the standardisation of degrees, etc., recommended by us, have not come into effect completely, it is necessary that, as an interim measure, steps are taken to define the equivalence of the variousSanskrit Diplomas and Titles. As already pointed out, different Sanskrit Titles are current in different parts of the country; the equivalence of these Titles should be established, so that there might not be any part of the country. There should also be fixed an equivalence between the various stages of the Pathasala education on the one hand and those in modern schools and colleges on the other. Thus, Madhyama, Sastri and Acharya (or the Entrance, Preliminary and Final of the Madras Siromani) should be declared respectively equivalent, at least for some categories of employment, to S.S.L.C., B.A. and M.A. In the North and in Bombay this has already been done, but in other parts it still remains to be done. There would be several lines of employment to which the products of the Pathasalas could take if this equivalence with the school and college examination was granted. We would therefore, urge upon all States to examine this question and declare suitable equivalence, so that the Sastris, Siromanis, Tirthas and Vidvans might not consider teaching as the only line open to them. Free Education 30. There is one important aspect of Sanskrit Education regarding which some representation was made to us in the course of our tours in Uttar Pradesh. Sanskrit Education has long flourished in this country on the basis of the facilities of free boarding and free lodging afforded to the pupils. Even now, this practive continues in the traditional Pathasala, though on a considerably smaller scale. It was pointed out to us that free food and free lodging often tended to produce a type of student whowas not serious about studying Sanskrit and took to it only because there was bo other opening for him. And, as it often happened, he would leave the Pathasala as soon as he was fed up with it or found something else to do. It was, therefore, suggested that the levying of fees might help to produce a greater sense of seriousness and might bring in a better type of students. Actually, a Sanskrit School in uttar Pradesh which charges fees, has more and better students on its roll. In the South, the introduction of the reorganised Sanskrit or Oriental High Schools has brought in the question of levying fees, and, in Kerala, we were told, fees were collected in some of the Sanskrit Schools. 31. Even granting the contention that the levy of fees will lead to some improvement in the student material, we must seriously consider whether it would be desirablw to enforce this rule everywhere and at all stages. It is true that no system of education can live for all time on charity alone. As against this, we have to take into account the modern trend in the educational policy. In many countries, education is free and compulsory up to a certain standard. In ancient times, we had accepted in India the ideal of free education; and today we are trying to line up with this universal modern ideology. In higher education also, in countries like England, a very high percentage of the students enjoy the facilities of scholarships. Somehw, the ancient Indian ideal which abhorred the idea of making the young pay for their education has been gaining ground in modern philosophy of education also. Under these circumstances, we think that it would not be advisable to make any sudden and drastic changes in the matter of the various facilities at present available in the Pathasalas. Qualifications of Sanskrit Teachers, etc. 32. In Chapters dealing with Sanskrit Education, Teaching of Sanskrit, Sanskrit Research, and Manuscripts, we have incidentally touched upon the equipment necessary for the different types of workers in the institutions doing work in the field of Sanskrit. Generally speaking, in the various institutions, which we visited in the course of our tours, we did not find any glaring deficiencies in respect of the qualifications of the persons employed in them. However, we may briefly set forth here the minimum qualifications necessary for different categories of Sanskrit posts. 33. To begin with the Schools, The teacher of Sanskrit for the Higher Secondary Classes should be a holder of some recognised title, such as Tirtha, Sastri, Acharya, Siromani, Vidvan, etc., or should have other equivalent qualifications. He should also possess a Diploma in Teaching. For the Lower Secondary Classes, the teacher should have passes the Madhyama or an equivalent examination. In the reorganised Sanskrit High Schools also, the qualifications mentioned above should hold good. 34. So far as Colleges and Degree Courses are concerned, an M.A. in Sanskrit or an equivalent examination with high second class should be the minimum qualification for a teacher. a combination of University training and Pathasala training is always tobe prefferred. For the Chief professor of Sanskrit Department, a Research Degree, teaching Experience of Post-graduate standard for not less than five years, and a decent record of research work should be the minimum qualifications. In Research Departments of the Universities or in Institutes recognised by the Universities for Post-graduate and Research work, the Heads as well as other who guide research should possess a Research Degree and a record of continuous and recongnised research work. For other members of Research Departments also, the minimum qualifications shouls include approved post-graduate Research work. The Curator of a Library should be a Research Scholar of some standing, specially qualified in the examination of Manuscripts, archival science, and textual criticism. Both in the Teaching Department and the Research Department of the universities or the Colleges, at least one of the members of the Staff should be a traditional Pandit who is well-grounded in at least two Sastras. so also for a certain number and types of posts in research Institutes and Special Projects of Research, proficiency in Sastras should be insisted upon. We do not approve of any third class gradute or title-holder being appointed to any of the postsin Colleges, University Departments or Research Institutes. 35. So far as the Pathasalas and Sanskrit Colleges are concerned, old type Pandits who are recognised Masters in more than one Sastra would be most desirable as teachers. The traditional institutions shouls try to secure the services of as many of such Pandits as possible. For the different Sastras, persons who have passed the highest examinations with those Sastras as their special subjects should be chosen; they should have at least three years' teaching experience. 36. Just as we have recommended that one of the members of the staff in the Teaching or the Research Department of a College or a University should be a traditionally trained Pandit, we also recommend that, in all Pathasalas, one of the teachers shouldhave an M.A. Degree in Sanskrit as History of Literature, Comparative Philology, etc. In the reorganisation recommended by us, employment of M.As. in the Pathasalas would become necessary not only for the teaching of Sanskrit subjects but also for the teaching of the modern subjects to be introduced. 37. As we have emphasised in the Chapter on teaching of Sanskrit, the Pandits selected as teachers should have undergone a Course in Teachers' Training. We suggest that such Training Courses should be started at different centres. 38. For the Sanskrit Universities, the services of the most distinguished scholars of the Pandit tradition, who have the capacity to produce original work, should be enlisted. Their Assistants also should, in addition to the specialisation in particular Sastras, show evidence of their capacity to do original research work. 39. Apart from secialising in different Sastras and going in for Teachers' Training , some products of the Pathasalas would do well to pick up the different scripts in which Sanskrit Manuscripts are written. Such Pandits could be very well employed in Manuscript Libraries for the work of copying and collation. Some of the Pathasala students might, again, qualify themselves for Sanskrit proof-correction and other press-work relating to Sanskrit publications. Venus of Employment 40. For an average Sanskrit graduate, venues of general employment are as much open as to any other graduate. To one who wants further to specialise in Sanskrit, there are openings in the teaching and research lines in his own subject as also in alliedfields such as Indian Philosophy, Ancient Indian History, and Archarology andEpigraphy. With a larger cultural and literary background, a Sanskritist can build up a career for himself as a writer or an organiser of cultural institutions. sanskrit is one of the subjects for I.A.S and other Union Public Service Commission Examinations, and a bright Sanskrit graduate can sit for such competitive examinations. We have already pointed out elsewhere that a Sanskritist is specially well fitted to act as a cultural officer both in the national schemes as well as in the Indian Embassies abroad. As for the traditional Pandit, the teaching line is open to him not only in the Pathasalas but also in general schools, colleges and research departments. Elsewhere we have stresses the desirability of employing qualified Pandits in degree colleges to teach the Sastra texts; we have alo suggested their recruitment in University research departments, research institutes and special research projects. We have recommended the addition of research sections to the Pathasalas and the setting up of Sanskrit Universities; and in all these the Pandit will have many opportunities for work. 41. In the Maths and temples and in the Community Projects and National Extension Service, some of the gifted Pandits who can give attractive discourses on religious and moral subjects can be usefully employed for lecturing and propaganda work. That Pandits can do well even in the organisational work in this line is exemplified by one of the Pandit-teachers in the Sanskrit College, Jaipur, who is now the Regional Secretary of the Bharat Sevak Samaj there. It has already been mentioned that the Department of Education in West Bengal occasionally employs a Bhagavata expounder. In Assam, Pandits are employed to give moral instruction to prisoners in jails. In Orissa, the Commission came across a young man who had carved out a carrer for himself as a paid public lecturer on Sanskrit and allied cultural subjects. He told us that he charged Rs. 50 per lecture and that he was much in demand . As we have pointed out in the section on Popularisation of Sanskrit in ChapterX, there is a real demand today for exponents of the Epics and the Puranas. Among the educated public, there is a growing desire to read Indian philosophical texts, and a number of Pandits will be able to find work for such private instruction to individual or study-groups. 42. Such Pandits as have some professional equipment can find employment as Priests, Ayurvedic Doctors and Jyautisikas. The Sanskrit Printing Presses need Sanskrit compositors, and as we have suggested elsewhere in this Chapter, such of the Pathasala students as cannot afford to study beyond some elementary classes may qualify themselves for such press-work. Sanskrit Proof-reading will, of course, need higher qualifications in Sanskrit than in the preceding case. In Manuscript Linraries, sanskritists with average equipment can make a living as copyists. 43. One of the objectives--though perhaps incidental--of the reorganisation of the Pathasalas, which we have recommended elsewhere, is to open up to the students passing out of these institutions new avenues of employment. In the revised courses, the Pathasalas students would be taught English, General Science (including Mathematics) and Social Studies. A product of a Sanskrit school or college would thus be qualified for any job which was generally available to S.S.L.Cs. or Graduates. we would, however, like to emphasise again that the ultimate aim of the reorganisation of the traditional system is to produce a new type of Pandit who will carry on the tradition of adhyayana and adhyapana in a newly invigorated way. Ministry of Culture 44. Some of our witnesses, among whom were distinguished administrators like Dr.C.P.Ramaswamy Aiyar, expressed the view that, in Free India, when as onr of the measures for an all-round regeneration of our country, our leaders were anxious to rehabilitate our ancient culture, which had been sadly neglected by the British Government, it was necessary to have a separate Ministry of Culture. Such a Ministry might not only pay special attention to cultural development but might also bring together under one administration the various cultural matters which were now speard over different Ministries and were sometimes even needlessly duplicated by more thatn one Ministry. The portfolios of the various Ministries, as they exist now, are a legacy of the British days and there is no reason why we should not reorganise them in a manner which would be more suitable to the needs of our new Republic. In such reorganisation, an independent Ministry of Culture should figure prominently. Many modern countries have Ministries of Culture. As Sanskrit is pre-eminently a cultural subject, this Commission thinks that the Centre will be a right step in the direction of the cultivation and growth of Sanskrit studies. CHAPTER XII CONSPECTUS AND RECOMMENDATION CONSPECTUS In Chapter I, Which is by way of introducation, we have given a statement regarding the appointment of the Commission and how it set about its work. We have also defined the scope of our inquiry on the basis of our Terms of Reference. Reference is made in this Chapter to the work of two other Educational Commission appointed by the Government of India, namely, the University Educational Commission and the Secondary Education Commission, as also of the Official Language Commission adn of various Sanskrit Reorganisation Committees appointed by the different States and Public Bodies, in so far as it has a bearing on the field of out inquiry. Chapter I I gives a historical survey of Sanskrit studies in India. It traces the circumstances which led to the development of Sanskrit Education on two paralles lines--the traditional and the modern. It also describes the growth of institutions and activities along both these lines during the past century and a half. In Chapter III, we have reviewed the present situation in respect of Sanskrit in Pathasalas, in Secondary Schools and Colleges, and in Univesities and Research Institutions. We have also taken note of the various public activities devoted to the cultivation an promotion of Sanskrit. Chapter IV deals with the aspirations of Independent India and the vital bearing which Sanskrit has on them. In a sense, it opens the case for Sanskrit. Here we have discussed, among other, the following topics: the importance of sanskrit in Indian history and Culture: the intellcetual value of Sanskrit studies among the Humanities; the richness and the intrinsic worth of Sanskrit Literature and its significance for the full development of the mind and the builing up of character; the role of Sanskrit in respect of the maintenace of National solidarity, and its significance as a link binding India with the Worlds of the West and the East; the character of Sanskrit as a living force, notbeing merely a dead classical languages; the relation of Sanskrit with all the regional languages of India as the perennial source upon which the latter draw for their sustenance and growth; the place which Sanskrit should have in the general scheme of Indian Education: and the necessaity for according special treatment to Sanskrit. Chapter V on Sanskrit Education concerns itself (i) with the study of Sanskrit as part of General Education, showing how the place of Sanskrit can be made secure in the curriculum of Secondary Schools; and (ii) with the specialised study of Sanskrit ascarried on in the traditional Pathasalas and in the modern Colleges and Universities. With reference to the specialised study of Sanskrit, we have discussed the merits and the drawbacks of the two systems of Sanskrit Education and the question of their integration. we have indicated the lines on which the two systems can be reorgansied, so that they may reinforce each other. Further, we have pointed out how Sanskrit has to be treated as a necessary complement to the higher study of Modern Indian Languages and of other subjects like Indian Philosophy and Ancient Indian History and Culture. In Chapter VI, we have considered the methods, both ancient and modern, of teaching Sanskrit, and have stresses the need for evolving a suitable method to teach a language like Sanskrit at different levels. Improvements have also been suggested in thecurriculum and the system of examinations. Chapter VII is devoted to the consideration of Sanskrit Research in all its aspects. We have pointed out the significance of Research for the growth of Sanskrit studies and the facilities needed ofr it. We have then discussed such topics as Sanskrit Research in the Universities; research scholarships; adn fellowships; adjudication of research theses; foreign degrees; neglected subjects; seminars and inter-disciplinary study; research publications; research projects; Journals and Bibliographies; co-ordination of activities in the field of research; Research Institutions; and the All India Oriental Conference. We have also dealt at some length with the scheme for a Central Institute of Indology. In Chapter V III, we have tackeled the question of sanskrit Manuscripts--their search, collection, preservation, cataloguing, study and publication. we have also touched upon the question of the setting up of a Central Manuscripts Survey. Chapter IX deals with the question of sanskrit University. In Chapter X, we have discussed various other topics relating to Sanskrit, such as the use of Sanskrit on formal occasions; Sanskrit and Religious Education; pronunciation of Sanskrit; the use of regional script s for Sanskrit; Technical Terminology; Sanskrit as an Official Language of the Indian Union; Sanskrit and the public Services; State honours and patronage for Sanskrit scholars; encouragement of Sanskrit through Maths and temples; Veda-patha. Purana-patha and Paurohitya; technical disciplineslike Ayurveda, Jyotisa and Silpa; Basic Sanskrit; Sanskrit as a Classical Language; Sanskrit through private classes, study-groups, private examinations, Sanskrit associations, Sanskrit drama, the All India Raido, the Press, cheap editions of Sanskrit classics with translations in the regional languages and English, and the Sahitya Akademi. In Chapter XI, we have considered some organisational, administrative and financial matters arising out of the subjects dealt with in the foregoing Chapters. Among other things, we have discussed here the question of the husbanding, for the promotion of Sanskrit, of the resources available through various Trusts and Endowments and the setting up of a Central Sanskrit Board. In Chapter XII, we have given a Conspectus of the earlier Chapters and have brought together the major Conclusions drawn and Suggestions and Recommendations made by us in the body of the Report. The Report concludes with an Epilogue. This Report is followed by nine Appendices giving varied information in connection with the work of the Commission. RECOMMENDATIONS Sanskrit Education (I) Sanskrit in Secondary schools: In view of the importance of Sanskrit for an adequate understanding of the culture of India ; in view of its intimate relation with the modern Indian languages; in view of the desirability of every Indian student having an apportunity to study it: in view of the fact that the Secondary School Education has not only to be complete in itself and well-rounded (as many students would be discontinuing their formal education at that stage) but has also to form an adequate foundation for the further study of Sanskrit in Colleges and Universities; and in view of the various other points made out in Chapter IV: this Commission recommends that such provision should be made in the language studies in the Secondary School Curriculum as would guarantee for Sanskrit a secure place therein as a language which all students would be able to take up, and that, for this purpose, the necessary modifications should be made in the Three Language Formula which has been already announced by the Central Government and which is being implemented by the States. The Commission urges upon the Government the need for making an adequate provision for the study of Sanskrit in the scheme of general education, in Schools and Colleges, as otherwise the liberalisation of Sanskrit Education which has taken place in modern times will receive an undesirable set-back (III.49). The Commission recommends that this provision should be such that, in some way or other, the young Indian pupils, with such exceptions as may be necessary (V.15), would automatically study Sanskrit; that, for this purpose, compulsory provision for the teaching of Sanskrit, unaffected by arguments of economy or number of students taking Sanskrit, should be made in all the Schools in the country (V.32); and that arrangements of groups of subjects should be so designed as not to debar such students as want to study Sanskrit from doing so (V.33) The Language-Formula: This Commission recommends that, in Secondary Schools, all Indian students should be taught three languages, namely, (I) the mother-tongue (or the regional language), (2) English, and (3) Sanskrit (or, in some special cases, some other classical language as equivalent to Sanskrit e.g., Arabic, Persian, Old Tamil, Latin or Greek)(V.25, 15); That Hindi should be taught at the College stage to such students as desire to enter all-India services (V.25); or, if it is to be taught in the School, the three language-scheme recommended by us above should be so modified that Hindi, or, for Hindi-speakind students, some other modern Indian language, preferably South Indian, is allowed as an alternative to Englsih (V.25) In any scheme of adjustment with Hindi, the Commission is against providing Hindi as an alternative to Sanskrit. The Commission recommends the following pattern for the study of languages in Schools: (i) Class 1-5: only the mother-tongue with voluntary extra-currucular lessons in Sanskrit Subhasitas, etc.; (ii) Class 6: the mother-tongue and English, the extra-curricular lessons in Sanskrit Subhasitas etc., being continued; and (iii) Class 7-11: the mother-tongue (reduced), English and Sanskrit (V.27). In this connection, the Commission thinks that it is not advisable to add the burden of Hindi as the fourth language at the School stage. The best results, in the opinion of the Comnmission, will be achieved if Hindi is made a subject of study at the College stage, on the basis of a knowledge of the mother-tongue and Sanskrit (V.25). If the Three-Language Formula, namely the mother-tongue, English and Sanskrit (or the alternative formula, namely, the mother-tongue, Hindi or some other Modern Indian Language, and Sanskrit), as recommended by the Commission as its first choice, is not feasible in certain parts of the country, then, as a second preference, the Commission recommends a Four-Language Formula, namely, the mother-tongue, English, and Hindi (or any other Modern Indian Language for Hindi-Speaking students), pius Sanskrit [V.25 (2)]. As a third preference, the Cpmmission favours a course of four languages, namely, the mother-tongue, Englsih, and Hindi, plus Sanskirt in a composite course with the mother-tongue or Hindi or both, under certain specific conditions, namely, (i) that, at some stage, such a composite course must be made compulsory in lieu of the mother-tongue, (ii) that the duration of this course must not be less than 5 years, (iii) that the course must begin with an equal emphasis on the two languages, and emphasison Sanskrit must increse in the higher classes, and (iv) that separate passing in each constituent language of the composite course must be made obligatory [V.25(4), 28]. This Commission is of the opinion that it is quite practicable to adjust the study of the four languages (the mother-tongue, Sanskrit, English, and Hindi or any other Modern Indian Languages for Hindi speaking students) with out there being any trace of burden, if the extra-ordinarily long course in the mother-tongue is prined to some extent, if the simultaneous commencement of the learning of two languages is avoided by phasing their introduction, and if English and Hindi are treated as skill subjects and not as content subjects, as indeed they are meant to be treated (V.20, 21, 28, 29). The preferences of the Commission in the matter of its recommendations are in the order as stated above. The Commission is definitely against the suggestions made in some quarters that Sanskrit should be provided for out of school hours or as a non-examination subject[V.25(3)]. The Commission is of the view that a course in Sanskrit in Secondary Schools of less than 5 years' duration will not be at all adequate as the necessary foundation for the further study of it at the College Stage (V.27). The Commission is against Pali and Prakrits being allowed as alternatives to Sanskrit at the School stage; at the same time, the Commission recommends that the study of the Prakrits should be made an obligatory part of the courses in special Sanskrit in the Universities and the Pathasalas. Provision should also be made for the Prakrits and Pali beings taken as special subjects at the Graduate and the Post-Graduate stages (V.31). The Commission further recommends that, in addition to the provision for Sanskrit in the scheme of languge studies, some account of the thought, culture and literary producations in Sanskrit should be included in the subject of Social Studies in the Seondary School Curricula (V.8, 85). (2) The Traditional System of Sanskrit Education and Learning: The Commission, agreeing with the4 view expressed by an over-whelming majority of witnesses, recommends that the traditional Pathasalas system of Sanskrit education and higher studies should be continued and preserved and recongmised as an accepted form of education like of school and college education (V.44-47). The Commission recommends-- that the Pathasala system should be revitalised by reorgainising the Pthasala courses with the introducation in them of some modern subjects like the mother-tongue, English, General Science including Mathematics, and Social Studies including Ancient Indian History and Culture (V.60-62), adequate care being taken to see that this introducation of the modern subjects does not result in lowering the standard of Pandit scholarships (V.71). that these reorganised Sanskrit High Schools or remodelled Pathasalas, with their students studing mainly Sanskrit (for not less than 16 periods a week) and also some modern subjects as indicated above, should be on par with other High Schools, and their products be treated like S.S.L.C., students for purposes of employment or admissioon to further courses of study (V.58,61): that Pandit -Teachers in the Sanskrit High Schools or reorganised Pathasalas should be required to undergo a course of Teachers' Training and that, for this purpose, special Sanskrit pedagogic courses should be instituted (V.16); that the reorganised Pthasalas should be properly inspected by an adequate Inspectorate, which should see particularly whether proper provision is made in the Pathasalas for the teaching of the modern subjects (V.68); that, where feasible, these reorganised Pathaslas couses should be opened as Sanskrit Wings of existing general High Schools (V.73-4); that these sanskrit High schools or remodelled Pathasalas should lead to sanskrit Colleges; the former (Sanskrit High Schools or reorganised Pathasalas) comprising, fter 5 years of primary education, the two stages of Prathama and Madhyama of three years duration each, corresponding respectively to Lower and Higher Secondary; and the latter (Sanskrit Colleges) comprising the Graduate and the Post-Graduate stages of Sastri (of three years) and Acharya 9of two years0 correspnding respectively to B.A. and M.A. (V.58-59); that the products of the Sanskrit Colleges should enjoy the same prestige and status as those of the Colleges of Arts, Science, etc. (XI 28); that, apart from encouraging in every way all proper proposals for sanskrit Universities from states and Private Foundations or Societies, the Central Government itself should give a lead by founding a Sanskrit University (IX. 16, 17); that, in respect of the traditional sanskrit education in the Pathasalas, there should be a uniform system for all India, with the same standards, duration of courses, examinations and nomenclature of Sanskrit degrees and/or diplomas (V.59-60); that, in the interim period, there should be establised an equivalence in respect of the different Sanskrit diplomas current in the different parts of the country, as also an equivalence between the various stages in the tradtional Sanskrit education on the one hand and the stages in the University education on the other (XI.29); that this parity should comprehend also the scales and grades of pay, as between Pandit-Teachers and Graduate-Teachers in the various cadres in Schools, Colleges and Universities (XI.28); and that Pandit-Teachers be given the same status as Graduate-Teachers in respect of representation on the various University Bodies (XI.28). Other recommendations of the Commission relating to Pandits, Pandit-learning and Pathasalas are given subsequently. (3) college and University: The commission recommends-- that, in the College course leading up to the Graduate and Post-graduate Degrees, there should be provision for the study of sanskrit under general as well as special and optional subjects; that such of the Universities, as have not so far provided for the study of sanskrit as a special or an optional subject for B.A. (Hons.) and M.A. Degrees, should make such provision available in their college or Colleges; that no University in India should be without a Department of sanskrit or a Chair in sanskrit for the organisation and teaching of Sanskrit as a special subject for B.A. (Hons.) and M.A. (VII.12); and that, for facilitating the proper pursuit of such advanced study of Sanskrit under the special branch, the teaching of sanskrit in the lower collegiate classes should be sufficiently strengthened(III.54). Other recommendations of the Commission in respect of the Collegiate study of Sanskrit are given subsequently. (40 Integration of the Two System: The Commission is of the considered view that it is premature and not wise to make any forced attempt at an integration of the Pathasalas and the University systems of Sanskrit Education into a single system. The Commission, however, recommends a greater measure of co-opertaion between the two systems, helping the two to approximate each other steadily and gradually, so that a healthy and lasting integration of the two might naturally emerge at some furturedate. The Commission recommends-- that, for this purpose, Pathasala Pandits should be employed in modern colleges, Universities and Research Institutes to bring into these modern institutions the traditional method of intensive and line-by-line study and mastery of the texts, and, correspondingly, Sanskrit M.A.s should be employed in highergrade Sanskrit Pathasalas to familiarise the Pandits and the students there with modern historical, critical and comparative methods (V.77-82); that the various other ways set forth in the Chapter on sanskrit Education, Teaching of Sanskrit, and Sanskrit Research for familiarising the Pandits with modern methods and the results of modern research should be adopted; that care should be taken to see that there is no hybridisation by bringing the two systems together in a superficial manner; and that the integration of the two systems should be tried at higher levels by arranging for some Sanskrit Graduates of the Universities undergoing Pandit-training, and for Pandits, after the completion of their Sastraic study, undergiong training in modern methods (V.77-82; VI.23). (5) sanskrit and Other Indian Languages and Allied subjects: The Commission recommends-- that, in view of the intimate relation of Sanskrit with the several Indian languages and the influence exerted on the latter by sanskrit, the special study of all the Indian languages at B.A. (Hons.) and M.A. stages should include a study of Sanskrit; and that, for this purpose, there should be prescribed at least one full paper in sanskrit in all degree and Post-graduate courses in Indian Languages (V.83); that, particularly in the case of Hindi, which, according to the Constitution, is to draw primarily from sanskrit, a larger quantum of Sanskrit study, especially form a grammatical point of view, should be prescribed from the school stage onwards up tothe M.A. stage; that, in the syllabus of studies in the degree and Post-graduate courses in Indian philosophy, Ancient Indian History and Archaeology, Indian Music, Indian Architecture, etc., provision should be made for a fair knoweledge of Sanskrit and for the studyof Sanskrit texts on Philosophy, of Sanskrit inscription, of Sanskrit treatises on Music, Architecture, etc. (V.84); tha, in the special courses of English literature also,provision should be mad for the study of the principles of Sanskrit literary and dramatic criticism. Alankara and Natya-Sastra, and for a comparative study of the Sanskrit epic, drama, etc., at least in translations (V.84); that, in the special courses of scientific subjects, like Mathematics and Astronomy, Medicine, etc., the syllabi should include a study, from the historical and comparative points of view, of the contributions of India in those branches as found in old Sanskrit texts9V.84); and that, to enable all graduates of Indian Universities to have some knowledge of the cultural heritage of the country, there should be a general provision for all students in schools and colleges for a graded course in the culture enshrined in Sanskrit, giving an introduction to Sanskrit literature. Indian thought, philosophy and religion, and art and architecture (V.85). Teaching of Sanskrit The Commission recommends-- that, in view of the unique character of the Sanskrit language, which can be compared neither with the spoken mother-tongue nor with a dead archaic language, and which is immanent in the thought, vocabulary and form of most of the spoken tongues of India, special steps should be taken to investigate into the methods of teaching it to different categories of students, Indian and foreign; that Sanskrit Pedagogy should be recognised as a special subject; and that courses should be organised in Teachers' Colleges for imparting training to Sanskrit Teachers of both the Graduate and the Pandit types in methods of teaching Sanskrit (VI.6-16). (I) Schools: The Commission recommends-- that, owing to the peculiar nature of Sanskrit which a young student does not noemally hear spoken around him, a certain amount of memorising, particularly of declensional and conjugational forms should be made a legitimate part of Sanskrit instruction(VI.11-120; that, in teaching Sanskrit, the teacher should not only use all the modern methods and aids, such as direct method, visual aids, conversation, recitation, dramatic production, etc. (VI.13,15), but he should also press into service the traditional Khandanvaya and Akanksa methods (VI.8), so that all these methods would ensure an active participation of the student in the process of teaching and add to his interest and Zest in learning the language; that, at the earlier stages, grammatical forms should be taught as full-fledged parts of speech, rather than as stems, roots and terminations, and that, for this purpose, grammar should be taught as a complement to or as arising out of the speech or the literary material used (VL.15); and that, at the School stage, the mother-tongue or the regional language, whch is closely related to Sanskrit, should be generally employed as the medium for teaching Sanskrit and that occasionally Sanskrit also should be employed when the direct andconversational method is resorted to (VI.17). (2) Colleges: The Commission recommends-- that, in the courses of special Sanskrit at the collegiate stage, an adequate amount of Sastraic study should be provided for, and that, for the proper teaching of the Sastras, qualified Pandit-Teachers should be employed in the Degree and Post-Graduate Deparments of Sanskrit in Colleges and Universities (VI.18-20, 22, 23); that, as the prescription of a large number of texts prevents adequate justice being done to each text, in some respects, the number of texts prescribed should be reduced so that these texts could be studied with greater intensity(III.54); that the highest University course in Sanskrit should provide for the attainment by students of ability to write and speak Sanskrit freely and to read further Sanskrit texts by themselves (VI.21); that, wherever possible, contact and Collaboration should be established between the Sanskrit M.A. classes and the teaching of the corresponding texts in the Pathasalas in the same centre 9VI.23); and that the curricula of Sanskrit studies should be so designed as to avoid the serious gap that now exists between the Intermediate or the Pre- University standard on the one hand and that required for the B.A. (Hons.) and M.A. courses on the other (III.54). (3) Pathasalas: The Commission recommendsa-- that the course of studies in the Pathasalas should be more broadbased, and that too narrow and too premature specialisation in a single Sastra should be avoided(VI.28); that a Sastri or equivalent title-holder should not only acquire good grounding in general literature and the basic Sastras, but should master, besides a special Sastra, other related Sastras also (VI.28); that, in the syllabus of studies, adequate provision should be made for the study of the Pracina texts in each Sastra and also of hitherto neglected subjects and Sastras, such as Veda (with Bhasya), Bauddha and Jaina Darsanas, Pratyabhijna, Tantra, etc. (VI.29-31); that, as fair grounding in Navya Nyaya should be given to all students who have to study higher texts belonging to the later dialectical phase of each Sastra (VI.32); that, in the final stages, students of the different Sastras should be given a knowledge of the corresponding developments in Western though(VI.34); that, in the teaching of Sastraic texts, improvements in the padagogic methods suggested in VI.35 should be adopted, so that greater interest would be created among the students and there would be a more active participation on their part in the classes; that, except in the lower classes where the mother-tongue may be used, if necessary the medium of instruction in the Pathasalas should be Sanskrit (VI.36); that, the Pathasalas should develop extra-currucular activities as indicated in VI.37 to create and sustain interest and enthusiasm among the students; that, in addition to the line-by-line study of the texts, provision should be made in the Pathasala classes for the students acquiring a grasp of the general outline and a comprehensive view of the condtributions of teh specific Sastras and texts, through general lectures and essay-writing (VI.38,39); that, with a view to remedying the draw-back, namely, that the present Pathasala-system does not produce scholars equal to the Pandit of the old type, the examination system for the Pathasala education should be drastically revised and oral examinationof the traditional Sastrartha or Vakyartha type should be introduced as a substantial part of the examination(say, with 50% fo the oral Sastrartha test), and that the new Sastri and Achray title-holders should be required to appear for a test in open assemblies (Sabhas) presided over by panels of Senior Pandits. The Commission desires to emphasise this as the most effective way to restore to the Sastraic learning its old depth and intensity (VI.41-43). Sanskrit Research (I) Research: This Commission thinks that the spirit of research is not something foreign, but is part and parcel of the tradition of Indian scholarship; that Research has an intimate bearing on the deepening and vitalising of Sanskrit study; and that, in this Research, which would consolidate and develop Sanskrit studies today, both the modern Sanskrit scholar and the Pandit have to take their share (VII. 1-5, 8). This Commission also thinks that, as the subjects of Research in the field of Sanskrit and Indology are still part of a living tradition and culture in India, Indian Indology is bound to have its own unique features, and should form a creative part of the scholarly life of the nation; and that, today, Independent India affords free and ample scope for fresh investigation and interpretation in the field of her culture(VII.7). This Commission envisages an ideal Sanskrit scholar who can play a distinct and valuable role today as one who combines in himself the best features of modern methods and traditionalequipment (VII.8), and thinks that adequate care ought to be taken to see that a spurious and superficial combination of the two systems does not dilute the standard of scholarly work in the field of Research (VII.11). (2) Pathasalas and Pandits: This Commission recommends-- that, in all Universities, facilities for Research should be afforded to the products of the Pathasalas as much as to those of the Universities and Colleges; that, where the higher Pathasalas or Sanskrit Colleges are affiliated to the Universities, facilities for Research by the staff and students of these Sanskrit Colleges should be provided for; that, Post-Graduate Research Titles or Degrees should be instituted for the Sastris, Siromanis, Tirthas, Vidvans, etc; that high grade Sanskrit Colleges, with reputed Pandits on their staffs and well-equipped libraries and collections of manuscripts, should be recognised by the Universities and the University Grants Commission as centres for Research (VII.9); that Pandits should be encourged and given adequate scope to edit critically difficult Sastraic texts and to bring out expositions of the recondite technique and terminology of Sastraic writing (VII.10); that Research Journals in sanskrit should be started in which research work done through the medium of Sanskrit might be published and Sanskrit abstracts might be given of Research work publised elsewhere in English and other languages; and that the Sanskrit University or Universities, recommended by this Commission, should have Research Departments devoted to the different Sastras, where Pandits might be able to make their original contributions(VII9). (3) Universities: This commission recommends-- that, in order that higher Research works in Sanskrit might be carried on in the Universities and that adequate guidance might be available there to young research scholars, every Indian University should have a separate Sanskrit Chair and Department of one ofr more members(VII.12); that the University Sanskrit Department should be so strong as not to allow the quantum of research work to suffer on account of an overload of Degree-class Teaching, and that the departments should concern themselves mainly with Post-Graduate Teachingand guiding of research Students and scholars (VII.12); that these Deparments should be under the charge of scholars who have a distinguished record of Research work to their vredit, who are continuously engaged in Research, and whor are capable of giving guidance to Research Students(VII.13); that the University Sanskrit Professors should try inculcate in the Research Stuents correct ideals and standards in methods of Research as indicated in VII.14-16, and that they should make available to young scholars, who have registered themselves under them for Research Degrees, active guidance and effective supervision of their work (VII.13); that the University Departments of sanskrit should be well equipped with adequate library facilities, including bibligraphical and reference material, periodicals, etc., required for Research work (VII.14); that all Universities should make awards of Research Studentships of at aleast Rs.100 P.m. to such of the brighter graduates, as desire to prosecute Research work, and that at least one or two of such Research Studentships should be made available regularly to the Sanskrit Department every year (VII.17); that, as it is desirable and necessary to give further encouragement to those who havequalified themselves in Research, a certain number of Scholarships or Fellowship should be awarded annually also to those who have taken their Research Degree and desire to undertake further Research (VII.18); that the Research Scholarships awarded by the University Grants Commission, which are of a higher value, should be treated as continuation schoalarships of this type for the further encouragement of those who have taken their first Research degree; that the Humanities Scholarships awarded by the Union Ministry of Education, which are still higher in value, should be granted to adult Research Scholars, or to Teachers in affiliated colleges who can take research leave, or to retired Professors whohave chalked out a programme of Research work, have materials for such work and require financial assistance to complete that piece of research work (VII.18); that, for the first Research Degree, Sanskrit Research Students, who are to be introduced to textual criticism, should take up the work of critically editing an important unpulished text with a critical introducation and study, and that the more intepretative type of work, which requires greater maturiry, should be taken up for the higher Research Degree (VIII.19); that Indian Universities, which now have diverse practices, conventions and standards in the matter of the adjudgement of Research theses submitted to them, should establish some uniformity regarding the type Research Degrees, the method of appointment of Referees and the valuation of theses; that there should be an initial Research Degree called M.Litt., and only one higher Research Degree, called D.Litt.; that, for both these, there should be viva voce test besides the thesis, and that the viva voce for D.Litt. should be of the nature of a regular public test (VII.20); that, as regards the appointment of Foreign Referees, Indian Universities should follow a uniform policy; that, were Indian experts are available, they should be generally preferred, particulary when the thesis relates to pure Sanskrit studies; that, if Foreign Referees are to be appointed, there should be only one such in a Boardof three Referees; and that the practice of appointing the Professor, who has guided the Candidate, as an Internal Referee should be discontinued (VII.21); that the university Grants Commission and the Universities should revise their policy in respect of Foreign Degree, especially in a field like that of pure Sanskrit studies (as indicated in VII.22); that, while young Indian Graduates might be encouraged to go to Foreign Universities to study subjects like Comparative Philology, which are notadequately cultivated in this country, the University Grants Commission, the Universities and the Government should revise their policy in respect of sending Indian Graduates to foreign countries for a higher study of subjects like pure Sanskrit; and that, on the otherhand since, even in the field of subjects like pure Sanskrit, sending abroad of more mature scholars of established reputation would have great significance and value (as shown in VII.23), and deputation of such scholars to foreign countries of Professorships should be more actively pursued (VII.23). The Commission recommends-- that greater discernment should be shown in the choice of subjects taken up for Research by young students and scholars, and that, in this connection, attention should be paid more particularly to the many neglected fields demanding investigation by Research scholars (as indicated in VII.24-28); that adequate facilities should be made available in this country for the proper pursuit of researches in the subject of the spread of Indian culture, Sanskrit language and literature, and Indian art and philosophy in countries outside Indian; that, for this purpose, a School of Asian Languages should be established in India and facilities should also be afforded in Indian Universities for the study of these languages, so that a tradition of research in these Extra-Indian Studies might be built up in this country; and that the All-India Priental Conference should be helped to open a new Section devoted to the subject of Indian Cultural Contacts outside India (VII.28). (4) Lectures, Seminars, etc.: The Commission recommends that University Lectures, through Departmental arrangement or by invitation under specific Endowments, Seminars and Inter-disciplinary Studies should be provided for and developed in the Universities with a view to stepping upthe quantity and quality of Research work being done under their aegis (VII.29-31). (5) Publication: The Commission recommends-- that greater facilities should be made available for the publication of the results of Research done in the different Universities and for making the Research publications of the Universities better known and more easily accessible in other centres of Research both in India and abroad (VII.32-36); that, greaterinterest should be taken by Indian publishers in the publication of Sanskrit and allied Indological works and in improving the standard of the printing of such Research works (as indicated in VII.34-35); that the Central and the State Governments should give greater encouragement to authors and publishers of Sanskrit and Indological books by making the libraries both in cities and mofussil centres, which receive grants-in- aid from them or which are under the charge of District Boards and other local bodies, purchase such books regularly (VII.36); that, instead of reprinting old works on ancient Indian literature and culture, written by Western Orientalists at a time when materials were not yet adequately available, publishers in India should arrange with Indian scholars for the writing of new books relating to ancient Indian culture and literature, so that, the latest researches and their significance for the present age might be well reflected in these works; that, at the same time, arrangements should be made for the reprinting of some of the old publications of fundamental value in the field of Sanskrit and Indological research, containing bibliographical material, original records, basic texts, and translations, etc., as also for the re-issue in Devandagari editions of a number of texts (e.g. in the field of Veda, etc.), which are available only in Roman script (VII.38); that several agencies, official and non-official public and private, which are bringing out Series of Sanskrit Texts, should show greater discretion in the matter of the selection of texts to be included in such Series; and that they should ensure the proper critical editing of these texts, which requires careful examination and collation of the available manuscript material and the preparation of the critical apparatus and the introuction (VII.39-40); that facilities should be made available to Manuscript Libraries, University Sanskrit departments, Institutes of Sanskrit Research and other agencies to bring to light larger number of valuable texts still lying in manuscripts in the different libraries; that, for the purpose of ensuring the speedy publication of a larger number of really valuable texts an inventory (in order of priority) should be drawn up, by scholars conversant with the manuscipt-material, of works of value lying in the different manuscript libraries, which deserve to be printed; and that such an inventory should be made available to all the agencies, public and private, which are engaged in the work of bringing out editions of texts. (6) Periodicals: The Commission recommends-- that periodicals publishing articles relating to Sanskrit and other allied research should make every effort to raise their standard by such means as the proper secreening of the papers submitted to them, so that they sould play a more effective role in the matter of improving the quality of Research work done in the country (VII.42); and that, as the number of Indological Journals and the output of Research published in them is large, plans for preparing and publishsing Research Digests,Annual Bibliographies, etc., should be seriously taken in hand (VII.43). (7) Projects: The Commission recommends-- thatm in view of the limited resources in respect of funds and personnel at present available, Research Institutes or University Departments should not, as far as possible, embark on any new big scale Research Projects (VII.47); that, in the interest of the entire Sanskrit Research in the country, the Central Government, the University Grants Commission, the State Governments and other authorities should concentrate, for the time being, on helping expeditious execution and completion of the important large-scale projects, which have already been undertaken at the different centres, such as, the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata (Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona), the New Catalogue Catalogorum (Madras University), the Vedic word Concordance and Vedic Dictionary (Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, HOshiarpur), the Sanskrit Dictonary on Historical principles (Deccan College Research Institute, Poona), the Critical Edition of the Ramayana (M.S.University, Baroda), etc., mentioned in VII.43 and discussed in (VII.43-47); and that, in the present conditions, it is more desirable to encourage the undertaking of smaller units of work, rather then big projectsm and thereby to step up the production of individual research(VII.48). (8) Non-Official Institutes: The Commission notes that there is a network of privately organised Research Institutes, which have been sustaining the work of Research in sanskrit and allied fields in the different parts of the country; that these Institutes have either been pioneers in the filed or are complementing the work of official agencies in their areas(VII.49); and that these private Institutes are severely handicapped on account of extremely limited resources in respect of staff, equipment, accommodation,etc. (VII.50). The Commission recommends that all these non-official Sanskrit and Indological Institutes in the country should be brough under a comprehensive scheme of co-ordination and should be given by the Central and the State Governments generous grants, both recurring and non-recurring, for, in the opinion of the Commission, these private Institutes form a necessary and integral part of the Research activity in the field of Sanskrit and Indology in this country (VII.51). The Commission recommends that the methods of assessing and assisting Indological work in this country, adopted by the present ad hoc Indology Committee set up by the Ministry of Education, should be revised and rationalised (VII.54). (9) Central Institute of Indology: The Commission recommends that the Government should establish a Central Institute of Indology, which, among other things, would supplement the work being doen by the existing Research Institutes and would have, as its main objective, Research work which is being neglected at present or which can be carried out only with the special facilities such as the Government alone can provide for (VII.55). The Commission further recommends-- that the core of this Institute should be the section devoted to Sanskrit, its other sections being devoted to such field as Munda, Dravidian and Sino-Tibetan Languages and their relation to Sanskrit; History and Antiquities of Egypt and the Near East(hittite and Iranian); and studies relating to Central Asia, Nepal, Tibet, China, and south-East Asian countries(VII.55); that this Institute should work in collaboration with or comprehend the Central Manuscripts Survey recommended elsewhere (VII.55); and that the work of this Central Institute should also include the prepartion of annual bibliographies of Indology, publication of annual bibliographies of Indology, publication of Sanskrit texts and Research monographs, and fucntioning as a Central Clearing House for Research Scholars (VII.56). (10) Co-ordination: The Commission recommends-- that the work of Research being carried on at different centres in this country, in universities, Research Institutes, etc., should be properly co-ordinated and that duplication of work should be avoided(VII.58); that, for this and other related purposes, year-to year inventories of subjects of Research undertaken at different centres should be issued (VII.58); and that steps (as indicated in VII.58) should be taken to promote a healthy and cooperative atmosphere in the field of Sanskrit Research in the country. (I I) Conferences: The Commission recommends-- that the All-India Oriental Conference, which is the premier forum of Orientalists in this country, should be placed on a permanent basis, with adequate fianancial resources (VII.59); that the Conference should be helped, in every possible manner, to expand the scope of its work by starrting new Sections devoted to hitherto neglected fields such as Indian Cultural Contracts Abroad (VII.60); and that the Conference should be given adequate aid to enable it to invite, for every Session, delegates from other Asian Countries particularly interested in the study of Indian Cultural Contacts with their own respective regions (VII.59,60). The commission feels that, apart from the academic again accruing from it, this last-mentioned line of work of the Conference will have a lasting benefit on the larger front of promoting Asian Solidarity (VII.61). (12) Prizes, Foundations, etc.: The Commission recommends that Prizes for Sanskrit and Indological work, on the model of those awarded by the Sahitya Akademi, should be instituted to promote high class Research Scholars and projects (VII.63). The Commission thinks that it is the imperative duty of the Government of India to ensure the continuation and expansion of higher Sanskrit Studies in this country, so that several fields, in which Western Indology had hitherto been taking the initiative, might how be properly investigated into by Indian scholars; and that, howsoever much it might be necessary to devote special attention a Scientific and Technological Studies in modern times, the Government should not ignore the need for promoting Humanistic Studies, particularly Sanskrit, Indian Philosophy, Archaeology and Art, which constitute the most precious cultural heritage of India (VII.64-66)/ Manuscripts The Commission recommends that the Government should pay due attention to the question of Manuscripts, as the content,value and standard of the Research work in the field of Sanskrit primarily depends on the discouvery or outstanding Sanskrit works among the Mauscripts lying scattered all over the country, and as the reconstruction of Indian History,Thought and Culture is dependent on the Manuscript sources as on Archaeological and other materials (VIII.4,12-16,20,26). The Commission recommends-- that, in order to tackle adequately the problem of the vast collections of the vast collections of Sanskrit Mauscripts lying in the different parts of the country, the Central Government should establish a Central Mauscripts Survey, which would be an independent Central Organisation or would form an i,portant Section of the proposed Central Institute of Indology, or would work under the aegis of the Central Sanskrit Board recommended elsewhere(VIII.24); that the Central Mauscripts Survey should have regional branches and should work in collaboration with State Governments and locally functioning non-official bodies (VIII.25); that the work of the Central Mansucripts Survey should consist of Search, survey, Collection, Cataloguing and Publication of Manuscripts of Sanskrit and allied works, and that, for this purpose it should have in its Central and Regional Branches qualified personnel experienced in Manuscript and editorial work and conversant with the local scripts and conditions(VIII.24); that the Central Manuscripts Survey should publish a periodical Bulletin or Report giving details about the Manuscripts surveyed, transcribed, loaned or collected from time to time (VIII.27); and that this Central Manuscripts Survey should function also as a Clearing House in respect of Manuscripts from foreign libraries, which are to be procured for the use of Indian scholars (VIII.27). The Commission recommends-- that adequate steps should be taken to safeguard the Manuscripts, particularly in private possession, against decay; that public consciousness should be aroused in respect of the value of Manuscript tresures lying in the nooks and corners of the country; and that, wherever possible, such Manuscripts should be acquired from their owners or the owners should be helped to preserve them properly (VIII. 19, 24). The Commission recommends-- that the Government should, if necessary, enact a suitable legislation to prevent the flow of manuscripts to foreign countries by sale or other means (VIII.17,25); and that active steps should be taken to build up, in the proposed Central Manuscripts Survey, alibrary of microfilm copies of Sanskrit and allied Manuscripts from collections in Western countries(VIII. 25,27). The Commission recommends-- that each State Government should start its own Manuscript Library, wherever such Library does not already exist, in order to safgeguard the Manuscripts in that region (VIII.10-19, 29); that these State or other local Manuscript Libraries should be under the charge of persons who are specially qualified in Manuscript and editiorial work and who have some standing in the field of Research (VIII.31); that these Libraries should make adequate arrangements for the thorough examination and early cataloguing of the Collections of Manuscripts made by them (VIII.22-29); that the Manuscript Libraries should have an adequate staff who can examine the Manuscripts, catalogue them, and also edit the rare works discovered them, and also edit the rare works discovered among them (VIII.22-29); that, while preparing Catalogues of Manuscripts, due attention should be paid to the correctness of identification and other information, and that, as far as possible, such Catalogues should follow uniform or standard methods of describing the Manuscripts (VII.23); that the Government should give necessary financial assistance to the Libraries possesing big collections, the nature and value of the contents of which are not known to scholars, with a view to enabling them to expedite the publication of their descriptive catalogues (VIII.11-30); that the Manuscript Libraries should have adequate accommodation and furniture for stacking Manuscripts, and should, as far as possible, possess micro-filming and photostat equipment, micro-film reading apparatus and similar other facilities(VIII.28-29); that the Manuscript Libraries should afford facilities to bona fide scholars and institutions to consult or borrow Manuscripts rfrom them (VIII.28); that, wherever the Manuscript Libraries are publishing critical editions of works, they should seek the advice and cooperation of scholars conversant with Manuscript and editiorial work, with a view to ensuring that their work is being done on proper lines; and that the Manuscript Libraries should take due care of the Manuscripts and seek the advice of experts on the methods of their preservation(VIII.31). The Commission recommends that the Government should take immediate steps to throw open to the public the Manuscript Libraries of the former Native States which are now inaccessible to scholars(VIII.11). Sanskrit Universities The Commission recommends---- that, with a view to upgranding and toning up the traditional system of Sanskrit Education, Sanskrit Universities should be established in different areas (IX.18); that the Sanskrit Universities Universities should not interfere in any manner with the existing Universities and their Sanskrit Departments and the courses of Studies in Sanskrit on modern lines (IX.12); that the Sanskrit Universities should constitute the apex of the reorganised Pathasala system of Sanskrit Education (IX.15); that the function of the Sanskrit Universities should be to Co-ordinate the Pathasalas and Sanskrit Colleges, regulate their courses of studies, inspects their working, and conduct their examinations(IX.15); that, besides being co-ordinating, affiliating and examining bodies, the Sanskrit Universities should also function as Centres of Higher Studies and Research in Sanskrit (IX.15); that the Sanskrit Universities should be brought into being and function under the aegis of the Statutory Body called the Central Sanskrit Board, recommended elsewhere (IX 16,17); that the Sanskrit Universities should adopt, at all stages, Sanskrit as the medium of teaching, administration, production of books, etc. (IX.13); that, while the Sanskrit Universities should concentrate on pure Sanskrit Studies at the highest level, they should also comprehend the necessary complement of modern knowledge and should provide to the scholars working there facilities to study contemporary developments in the different branches of knowledge; and that the Sanskrit Universities should have, in thier programme of work, the producation of Sanskrit works embodying modern knowledge, so that Sanskrit Studies fostered in their set-up do not suffer from segregation (IX.15). The Commission recommends that the Central Government should make it a point to encourage all proper proposals for Sanskrit Universities coming from the States (e.g.the one relating to the Varanasi SanskritUniversity of Uttar Pradesh) (IX.3<16); The Commission recommends that the Central Government should gvie a lead in the matter of the Sanskrit Universities by founding a centrally administered Sanskrit University somewhere in the South (IX.17). The Commission suggests that private bodies abd associations, which desire to organise and set up Sanskrit Universities, should bestow due thought on the various problems involved in that connection, should assure themselves of the required resources in respect of men and money, and should obtain the prior approval of the authority or authorities under whose aegis such Universities are to come into heing and function (IX.16). General The Commission recommends--- that, in view of the cultural importance ans pan-Indian character of Sanskrit, and with a view to arresting the growth of fissiparous tendencies and linguistic parochialism, which are at apresent threating the Unity of India (through the agency of Sanskrit which has through the ages, plyed the role of a great unifying force in the country), Sanskrit, which is already one of the languages recognised by the Constitution, should be declared as an Additional Official Languages (by the side of Hindi and English, for the time being) to be used for such public purposes as may be feasible; that, in particular, Sanskrit should be officially used on all such ceremonial occasions as the taking of oath, the swearing-in ceremony, the opening and the conclusion of the Sessions of Legislature and of officially sponsored National and International Conferences and Deliberative Bodies. the presentation of credentials, the award of National decorations and honours, and the University Convocations, as also for such purposes as Passports and Mottos of different departments of the Government. In this connection, the Commission desires to emphasise that the use of Sanskrit which commands unique prestige and respect all over India, would add to the dignity and solemnity of such occasions (X.I,21,29). The Commission recommends that the infinite resources of Sanskrit literature, particularly of its pithy saying and didactic stanzas (Subhasitas) should be utilised in Schools and Colleges for such moral and non-denominational religious instruction asmight be imparted in these Educational Institutions. The Commission further recommends that the Sanskrit Subhasitas which have a knack of sticking to memory of the nation, should be taught to the children from the earliest stages of their schools education (X.2,3). The Commission recommends that, as far as possible, efforts should be made to teach a Uniform Standard Pronunciation of Sanskrit in all parts of the country ; that, for this purpose, qualified readers and teachers of Sanskrit from areas, where the standard of pronunciation is better, should be employed in areas where pronunciation of Sanskrit is defective; and that, for the same pupose tape-records and gramophone records, as also the services of the All India Radion, should be utilised (X.4-7). The Commission recommends that, for Pan-Indian purposes, Devanagari should be accepted as the uniform Script for Sanskrit and should be taught to all students of Sanskrit; that, at the same time, the practice of using Local Scripts for Sanskrit should be continued as one of the chief ways of maintaining the necessary intimate contact of Sanskrit with the regional languages and promoting the advance of Sanskrit within the various regions; and that the Roman Script, which is used in a number of Sanskrittexts published in the West, should also be cultivated by Pandits so that they would be able to use the material printed in that script (X.8-15). The Commisssion recommends the full expoitation of Sanskrit and the technical and scientific literarture available in it for the building up of an All-India Scientific and Technical Terminology. The Commission further recommends that the principle which has been laid down in the Constitution and which has been supported by the Official Language Commission, namely, that the Official Language, Hindi, shall draw primarily from Sanskrit, should be given full effect to, particularly for the purpose of evolving a Scientific and Technical Terminology for all-India use. The Commission recommends, for this purpose, the formation of associations of scientific who should collectfrom differentbranches of Sanskrit literature all such precise technical terms as can be used today, and also recommends the compilation of a comprehensive English-Sanskrit Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms(X.16-20). The Commission recommends that, is view of the importance of Sanskrit for the understanding of the culture and the national genius of India, the personnel recruited for the Indian Administrative and Foreign Services should be given opportunities, through special courses of lectures , to acquire adequate knowledge of Sanskrit Thought and Indian Culture. The Commission further recommends that especially the Indian Students who go abroad should be given proper grounding in elements of Sanskrit Thought and Indian Culture so that they may adequately fulfil the role of true representatives of this country whrn they live among the foreign people who are now more anxious than ever to understand India(X.30-36). The Commission recommends that the Government should take early steps to appoint, in Indian Embassies abroad, Cultural Attaches possessing special competence in Sanskrit Languages, Literature and Culture, so that centres of Indic studies in the different foreign countries as well as the public in general interested in Indian culture might derive the necessary help from them. The Commission further recommends that Indian Embasies abroad should put up, now and then exhibitions of Indian literarture and otehr cultural material and maintain a fairly representative library of Indological literature. The Commission desires to point out that the appointment of such Cultural Officers would go a long way in creating among the considerable number of Indians, now living or domiciled in various foreign countries, the necessary awareness for the culture of their mother-land (X.30-36). The Commission recommends that, with a view to enhancing the prestige of Sanskrit and by way of recognition of scholars of real eminence, the Government should revive the award of the Title of Mahamahopadhyaya with an attendant life-honorarium of Rs.200 p.m. that the Central State Government should, in cooperation with the State Government, also provide for a scheme of life-pensions for the Pandits, who are in indigent circumstances but who are respected for their learning and character in the different parts of the country; that some of the eminent Pandits, who take interest in current affairs and are distinguished writers, should be nominated to Legislative Bodies, at the Centre and in the States; and that the President of India and the Governors of various States should hold an Annual Sabhas for honouring eminent Pandits (X.37-42). The Commission recommends that, in view of the fundamental importance of the Vedas from the point of view of the later development of Sanskrit Literature and Indian Thought and Philosophy, special attention should be paid to the preservation of the Oral Tradition of the different Vedas and their recensions as current in different parts of India, this Oral Tradition being useful even from the point of view of linguistic and literary research; that provision should be made available in temples and religious institutions for the recitation of the Vedas, and that, where such provision already exists, itshould be continued; that the surplus of temple funds which might be available, should be utilised for the maintenance of schools for the teaching of the Kantha-patha of the Vedas; that, in those parts of India where the Oral Tradition of the Veda hasdied out, authorities of educational and religious Institutions should take steps to revive it; that the Research Institutes working in the field of the Veda should, wherever possible, utilise the services of the Pandits who have preserved the Oral Tradition of the Vedas; that special attention should be paid to the tradition of the Samaveda, which is important from the point of view of Indian Music also, as well as to the tradition of the Atharvaveda, which has become almost extinct (at present being current only in a few families of Nagar Brahmans in Gujarat); and that the Vedic Endowments, such as those in the Deccan and south India, which are facing difficulties in one way or another, should be helped by the Governments to rehabilitate themselves in the matter of realising their annual incomes and utilising them (X.46-51, 53). The Commission further recommends that, apart from helping the preservation of the Oral Tradition of the Vedas in the manner indicated above, the Government should take early steps to prepara complete Tape-recordings of the Vedas, though the All IndiaRadio or through some other officail or non-official agency, and thus build up a Library of Vedic Recording (X.52). In view of the great role as the popular educator of the Indian masses, which the Epics and the Puranas have efficiently plyed in the past, and in view of the present efforts of the Government in connection with the spread of education and moral ideals among the masses, the Commission recommends that steps should be taken to train the required personnel for the exposition of Itihasa-Purana, and that the Pathasalas should introduce Itihasapurana and their exposition among their regular courses. The Commission recommends that gifted exponents of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Gita, the Puranas, etc., should be employed in Community Projects and National Extension Service Schemes for the inculcation among the masses of the proper ideals ofconduct and character , and that the Religious Endowment Board Temple Departments, functioning in some States, should also employ such exponents of the Epics and the Puranas for regular as well as occasional expositions (X.54-55). The Commission recommends that, wherever possible and necessary, courses in Paurohity and Karmakanda should be introduced in the Pathasalas. The Commission, however, thinks that it would be desirable if the Vaidikas and the Purohitas were given a better academic grounding in Sanskrit, Veda and allied disciplines (X.56). The Commission recommends that, in the different scientific and technical subjects in the University courses, students should be given an adequate knowledge of the ancient Indian contribution to those sciences as embodied in old Sanskrit texts, and that research should be carried on in the field of the Indian contribution to sciences, so that ancient Indian scientific knowledge might be properly appraised(X.57). The Commission recommends that, in respect of Ayurveda, while the necessary quantum of modern knowledge and equipment needs to be introduced in its study, such largescale integration with modern medicine, as would destroy the essential chracter of theAyurvedic studies, should be discountenanced; that Ayurvedic Title Courses should be converted into Degree Courses; that the universities should set up Departments of Research in Ayurveda; that text-books for the Ayurvedic students should be prepared in Sanskrit, so that they might be used all over India; and that knowledge of Sanskrit should be consodered a prerequisite for all students going in for Ayuirveda (X.58-60). The Commission thinks that the attitude of the Centre and the States towards Ayurveda needs to be revised, that greater utilisation of the service of Ayurveda should be encouraged among the people, and that steps should be taken to train larger Ayurvedic personnel. The Commission further thinks that is would be desirable to set up an All-India Council of Indigenous Medical Systems including Indiagenous Veterinarly Science(X.61). In connection with Indian Astronomy, mathematics, etc., the Commission thinks that there is much scope for research in these branches; it, accordingly, recommends that students of Mathematics and Astronomy in the Universities should be given an adequate idea of the work on Jyotisa, etc., embodied in Sanskrit, so that these students might feel inclined to take to research in the field of Sanskrit contribution to these subjects(X.62). The Commmission recommends that, in Schools of Art and Architecture and in modern courses in these subjects organised in the Universities, Sanskrit texts on Silpa-Sastra should also be taught, and that adequate steps should be taken to revitalise the practice and tradition of the ancient Indian Silpa-Sastra (X.63, 64). The Commisssion favours a simple form of Sanskrit, but not a simplified or Basic sanskrit, which takes liberties with the grammar of the languages. It, theregfore, suggests that graded forms of simple Sanskrit should be employed in the initial stagesof the teaching of Sanskrit of children and adults(X.65-67). The Commission recommends that the authorities and the public should support Sanskrit Journals, which form an effective medium for developing Sanskrit as a vehicle of modern thought and current affairs (X.70-72) The Commission recommends that the following measures should be adopted for the Popularisation of Sanskrit: (1) Organisation of private classes; (2) Study groups; (3) Private examinations; (4) Popular sanskrit booklets and selections with translations; (5) Establishment of Sanskrit associations, clubs, Sabhas, etc.; (6) Celebration of Days in commemoration of important Sanskrit Writers and Works; (7) Popular Publications; (8) Simplification of methods of teaching Sanskrit; (9) Sanskrit Literary Conferences; (10) Promotion of original writings in Sanskrit; (11) sanskrit Debates; (12) Competitions in short stories, plays etc., in Sanskrit; (13) Musical Recitals of Sanskrit classics; (14) Putting on boards of Sanskrit Dramas; and such other measures as have been set forth in Section 14 of Chapter X. The Commission recommends that, in order that the aesthetic and auditory qualities of Sanskrit might be fully exploited for the growth of popular interest in Sanskrit, the Government should give special encouragement to Sanskrit drama, opera and dance,musical recitals etc., by such means as sponsoring an annual Kalidasa Drama Festival. The Commission recommends that, as far as feasible, the authorities should extend their help and patronage to the more important and active private academies and bodies, which are working for the popularisation of Sanskrit in their respective regions. The Commission recommends that the All India Radio and the Film Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting should take all possible steps in the matter of the popularisation of Sanskrit (as indicated in X.78-80). The Commission recommends that the Indian Press should afford all possible facilities for popularising Sanskrit through their columns (in the manner indicated in X.84). The Commission recommends that the Union Government and the Sahitya Akademi and the State Governments and the Regional Branches of the Akademi should actively help the publication, in cheap and univform series, of Sanskrit Classics with translstions in Modern Indian Languages and English, as also of works relating to Indian Thought an dCulture. The Commission further recommends that Sanskrit Texts, which are no longer avalable, should be brought in new editions by the Sahity Akademi and other bodies; that works like a Dictionary of Sanskrit Words current in Regional Languages, handy editions of Poems and plays of great Sanskrit Authors, a Men of Letters Series of Sanskrit and Prakrit Writers, STudies on Indian Philosophers and Philosophical Schools, and attractive story-books in Sanskrit, should be taken up for publication, and that the National Book. Trust of India and the Sahitya Akademi should sponsor the efforts in this direction; and that new and undeveloped types of literary expression should be encouraged in Sanskrit, and that prizes should be offered for the same by the Sahitya Akademi and the State Governments(X.85-91). Administration and Organisation Trusts and Endowments: The Commisssion Desires to bring to the notice of the Government that there are in the country a large number of Endowments specifically earmarked for Sanskrit (including the Vedas), as also considerable surpius funds available with Religious Trusts.Temples and other similar Foundations, which, if properly tackeld, can be legitimately used towrds the implementation of the proposals made in this Report for the reorganisation, promotion and improvement of Sanskrit studies, As many of such Endowments are either moribund or frozen or mismanaged or diverted for purpose not consistent with their original object and as the surplused of Religious Trusts referred to above are either unutilised or diverted for secular purposes, this Commission urges upon the Government to take steps to institute, through the Central Sanskrit Board or some other competent agency, afull inquiry into such Endowments, set right their administration, make them operative, help them to realise the proceeds and redirect the diverted funds of Temples, etc., towards the proper cultivation of the Veda, Itihasa-Purana, Agama, Dharma and other branches of Sanskrit study related to the original objective of the Endowments. The Commission recommends that the Central Government should pass a suitable Legislation prohibiting the diversion of dfunds earmarked for Sanskrit studies to other charitable purposes, even with the concurrence of the Trustees and after orders of theCourts. This Legislation should further prohibit the diversion of the surplus funds of religious institution like Maths and Temples to secular charitable purpose and should insist upon the utilisation of these for promoting Sanskrit studies, which are broadly speaking regarded as religious objects. The Commission recommends that where, as a result of the abolition of Estate and Zamindaries and the merger of former Native States and Principalities, the maintenance of Sanskrit studies provided for in the previous set-up has been adversely affected,the Central and the State Government should take special care to ensure the continuance of the support which Sanskrit used to receive from its former patrons, and that the Government should also honour in full the commitments of former Princes and Zamindars, in respect of the promotion of Sanskrit, Vedic studies etc. (XI.2-16). Numerous Sanskrit Institutions are dependent on Land-endowments; and the Agrarian policy which has been recently adopted by some States has adversely affected these Institutions. The Commission, therefore, wants to press this matter up on the Governments for their earnest consideration (XI.5). in view of the facts that Sanskrit possesses an All-India importance, that its interest cannot be wholly taken care of by the States which have to develop the regional lanugages, and that a uniform policy for the whole of Indian in respect of Sanskritis desirable, this Commisssion recommends that Sanskrit should be specially taken care of by the Centre by placing it in the list of Concurrent Subjects in the Constitution (XI.19); that, while the States should normally look after Sanskrit in their educational set-up, the Centre should, whenever necessary, financially assist the States to fulfil their obligations in respect of Sanskrit; and that the Central Government should promote such activities in the filed of Sanskrit as do not receive adequate attention from the State Governments. Central Sanskrit Board: In view of the fact that several proposals made by this Commission for the cultivation and promotion of Sanskrit presuppose constant attention. co-ordination and direction from the Centre, the Commission recommends-- that the Central Government should take early steps to set up a Central Sanskrit Board; that this Central Sanskrit Board should not be only a co-ordinating and advisory body like the Central Boards of Secondary Education, Archaeology, etc., but that it should be constituted on the lines of the University Grants Commission, with statutotryauthority and financial provisions for helping Sanskrit Studies and research in the country. that this Board should consist of members representing all aspects of Sanskrit Education and Higher Studies--modern and tradtitional, academic as well as administrative--and all parts of the country, as also those representing private agencies and Research Institutes functioning in the field of Sanskrit; that, while the Central Sanskrit Board might function in an advisory capacity in respect of the University Sanskrit Departments, it should have no statutory jurisdiction over them; that this Central Sanskrit Board should concern itself mainly with two fields of Sanskrit activity: (i) the Pathasala education, and (ii) the privately organised Research Institutes in the country; that the Central Board should be charged with, among other things, the formation of the patterns of Sanskrit Education at different levels; the co-ordination of courses, teaching, publication and similar other activities; the standardisation of syllabuses, examinations and degrees; and the defining of the qualifications of different types of Sanskrit Teachers and Research Guides; that the Central Board should function as the agency through which the Central Government might grant subventions to the State Governments for purposes such as the maintaining of Sanskrit teachers in Secondary Schools; that the Central Board should also function as the agency through which the Central Government might grant subventions toreorganised Sanskrit Schools and Colleges in order to enable them to pay to their teachers in various grades emoluments equal to those paid to teachers in corresponding grades working in general High Schools, Colleges and Universities; that the Central Board should help the Pathasalas in the matter of accommodation, libraries and other eqipment; that the Central Board should concern itself with the question of adding Research Departments to higher Pathasalas and awarding Research Scholarships and stipends to the producats of the Pathasalas; that the Central Board should advise the Government in the matter of the State honours and Awards for Pandits recommended elsewhere; that the Central Board should be vested with the authority to sanction the starting of Sanskrit Universities, to recongnise them as statutory bodies, to make them suitable grants, and generally to control and direct their working; that the Central Board should co-ordinate and financially help the activies of the privately organised Research Institutes and Manuscript Libraries in the country; and that the Central Board should generally function in co-operation with the Central Institute of Indology and the Central Manuscripts Survey (XI.17-25). The Commission recommends-- that, in view of the great expansion of educational activities at the present time and the inadequacy of a single Directorate looking after all the different branches, the present Directorates of Public Instruction in the States should be split up, and separate Directors should hold charge of special branches, e.g. etc., and that, in such a reorganisation, Sanskrit should be placed under a Special Director (XI.27); and that, a sufficient number of Sanskrit Inspectors should be appointed in the States and they be chrged with the duty of regularly inspecting the Sanskrit Schools and Colleges in the respective States, particularly with reference to the fulfilment ofthe provisions of reorganisation (XI.26) The Commission recommends-- that there should be equality in the matter of status, privileges, and emoluments between the Professors and the Pandits employed in the Universities; and that the distinction between the Title-courses and the Degree-courses should be abolished (XI.28). The Commission thinks that it would not be advisable to make any sudden drastic such as free tuition, free lodging and free boaeding, which are at present available in many Pathasalas (XI.30-31). In view of the fact that the significance and standard of Sanskrit studies suffer on account of the different quality of the personnel recruited for the various posts in the field of Sanskrit, the Commisssion recommends that only such persons, as possess appropriate qualifications for these posts (as set forth in XI.32-39) should be appointed to these posts. The Commission recommends that, with a view to securing the unification of all cultural matters now scattered over more than one Ministry, the avoidance of duplication of work, the Adpotion of a single consistent policy, and the concentration of efforts in the matter of the cultural development of the country, the Central Government should constitute a separate Ministry of Sculture and place all cultural believes that the setting up of such a Ministry will go a long way in promoting various activitiesin the field of Sanskrit (XI.44). The Commission recommends that, as in the case of Scientific Studies and Research, so also in the case of Humanistic Studies and Research, particularly relating to Sanskrit and Indology, the Centre should show special concern. The Commission, indeed, feels that, in view of its peculiar position and significance, Sanskrit should receive a preferential treatment from the Central and the State Governments(IV.57-59). The Commission recommends that, in the National Plans adopted by the Government, a substantial amount should be set apart for the development of Sanskrit on th elines set forth in the various Chapters of this Report. The Commission recommends that, besides the major matters on which recommendations have been set forth above, several other matters which are referred to in the various Chapters of this Report and which are intended to further one aspect or another of Sanskrit studies, should also be attended to by the Central and the State Governments. EPILOGUE 1. We the Members of the Sanskrit Commission have very great pleasure in presenting the above Report to the Government. It was possible to prepare this Report only after our tours had been over and after we had been able to collect and arrange our materials from the written replies to our Questionnaire and from the oral evidence. The Commission was announced on the Ist October 1956, and its first meeting was held in New Delhi on th e7th and 8th October. However, the Commission actually started its work with the setting up of its Secretariat at Poona on the 1st November 1956, and we could make the Report ready only by the end of October 1957. 2. We are very happy that we have been able to present a unanimous Report. As Members of the Sanskrit Commission we were all inspired by a sense of what should be done for the intellectual, cultural and spiritual well-being of India as a nation, andhow Sanskrit could be helpful in this connection. It has been a matter of very great gratification that out views on this subject have been identical. This Report, we are happy to state, reflects the opinion of the Indian Public in connection with the various aspects of Sanskrit Education and Research. The views and re-commendations out forward in this report are really the views and recommendations of the people of Inda as a whole . 3. Our recommendations which are comprehensive comprise measures which would answer to the ideal requirements, those which are practicable in the situation, and those which, as the very minimum, ought not to be denied to Sanskrit. As we have said elsewhere, the appointment of this Commission has been a measure which has met with the fullest and most enthusiastic support of the people all over India. We think that the present is the proper psychological moment when the Government can do the needful in the matter of re-establishing Sanskrit most effectively in its places of prestige and usefulness. The atmosphere is extremely propitious for Sanskrit to be maintained as one of the bases of our national culture and solidarity. We also feel that Sanskri will provide a base for the promotion of International Understanding in the East and the West. 4. It has been our experience that there are persons in all parts of India who are eager to contribute whatever they can towards the promotion of Sanskrit. Already there are large endowments and other resources in teh country which, with the help anddirection of the Government, can be properly harnessed for the purposes set forth by us. The receptions which were given to the Commission wherever it went were symbolical of the universal feeling of love and reverence for Sanskrit. A proper lead is required from Government for the rehabilitation and stengthening of Sanskrit in the Indian scene, and this can be accomplished with the most willing co-operation of the people. 5. The Commission requests the Government to consider and take immediate steps in respect of some of our important recommendations. This will have a very great effect on the minds of the people, as it will be taken as an earnest for Government's intention to do something substantial for Sanskrit. 6. We are thankful that this opportunity to serve our people through this Commission was given to us. We are grateful to Governemtn for the continued help which we received from all officials connected with this matter. We also record our heartfelt thanks to all the State Governments and to all those persons, officials, institutions and members of the public, who helped us in our work, either directly or indirectly. The cordial reception and hospitality as well as the unstinted co-operation which it has been our privilege as Mambers of the Commission to receive from every quarter will always be cherised by us. 7. Finally, we desire to express our appreciation of the loyal and efficient service rendered by the members of the Commission's Secretariat throughout our work. SUNITI KUMAR CHATTERJI (Chairman) J.H.DAVE SUSHIL KUMAR DE T.R.V.MURTI V.RAGHAVAN V.S.RAMACHANDRA SASTRY VISHVA BANDHU SHASTRI R.N.DANDEKAR (Member-Secretary) APPENDIX III GOVERNMENT OF INDIA SANSKRIT COMMISSION QUESTIONNAIRE SANSKRIT COMMISSION SECRETARIAT POONA 4 November 18, 1956 You are aware that the Government of India have appointed (in October 1956) a Sanskrit Commission to consider the question of the present state of Sanskirt Education in India in all aspects with the following persons as Members: 1. Dr.Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Chairman, West Bengal Legislative Council, Calcutta, (Chairman). 2. Sri J.H.Dave; Director, Bharatiya Vidya-Bhava, Bombay. 3. Prof. S.K.De, Professor of Sanskrit Language and Literature, Post-Graduate Research Department, Sanskrit College, Calcutta. (NowProfessor, Jadavpur University, Calcutta.). 4. Prof.T.R.V.Murti, Sayajirao Gaekwad Professor of Indian Civilization and Culture, Banaras Hindu University, Banaras. 5. Prof.V.Raghavan, Professor of Sanskrit, University of Madras, Madras. 6. Asthana-Vidvan Panditaraja V.S.Ramachandra Sastray, Sankara Mutt, Bangalore. 7. Prof. Vishva Bandhu Shastri, Director, Vishvesvarananda Vedic Research Institute, Hoshiarpur. 8. Prof.R.N.Dandekar, Professor of Sanskrit, University of Poona, Poona, (member-Secretary). The Commission will, among other things, survey the existing facilities for Sanskrit Education in Universities and non-University institutions and make proposals for promoting the study of Sanskrit, including research. It will also examine the traditional system of Sanskrit Education in order to find out what features from it can be usefully incorporated into the modern system. With a view to eliciting informed public opininon on the subject, the Commission has issued the present, of inquiry, and it is not intended that all those who are pleased to send replies should necessarily answer every question. Correspondents are requested to favour the Commission with their views and suggestions on matters in which they are particularly interested or concerned, or of which they have special knowledge. Reasons, in brief, may please be given in support of the views expressed. The number of the question to which the answer or memorandum relates should be clearly indicated. Replies, in English or Sanskrit, may be kindly sent to' The Member-Secretary, sanskrit Commission, Poona4", so as to reach him not later than the 12 th of December, 1956. Correspondents are requested to give their full names, designations, and addresses at the end of their replies. A.GENERAL--SOME BASIC QUESTIONS 1. What special role has the Sanskrit to play in the national life of India to-day? 2.(a) How would you chracterise the general sentiment in your part of the country towards the study of Sanskrit ? (b) Apart from its study in Pathasalas, Colleges, and Universities, in what other ways are the cultivation of Sanskrit and interest in its literature and culture maintained in your part of the country? What steps would you suggest to promote such interest and cultivation ? 3. (a) in view of the humnistic and cultural value of Sanskrit what steps would you suggest for engendering among the citizens of the Republic of India a greater awareness for interest in the study of Sanskrit ? (b) In what ways can the Shitya Akademi help to popularize and promote interest in the study of Sanskrit literature? Should the Sahitya Akademi, in your opinion, undertake and encourage the publication by the Centre as well as the States, in cheapedition, of representative Sanskrit texts in the different branhes of learrning, with accompanying translations in (i)English and (ii) the regional languages (in a style like of the Loeb Classical Library of Greek and Latin texts in English, for example)?(c) What provisions in your opinion, need be made in the Second Five Year Plan for the promotion of Sanskrit Education? 4. (a) Do you think that a young person who has passed out of an Indian Educational Institution should necessarily possess some grounding in the elements of Sanskrit culture? (b) What steps need to be taken to enable the numerous Indian Students, Officials, and Employees of Indian establishments going to foreign countries to become in some measure, ture interpreters of this culture? (c) Do you think that the employment of Sanskirit scholars in Indian Embassies abroad will facilitate the cultural activites of those Embasies? 5. What are the possibilities of the use of Sanskrit for the purpose of certain official matters of an all-India character, e.g., inter-state communication on general topics, state and ceremonial occasions, University convocations, administration of oaths, and addressing foreign states on behalf of the Republic of India? 6. In what way can the study of Sanskrit be made serviceable in the implementation of the recommendations made by the University Education Commission regarding 'Religious Education' 9vide Report of the University Education Commission, Vol.1, 1949, p.303)?7. (a) What steps would you suggest for securing uniformity of pronunciation in Sanskrit on an all-India basis for the various parts of the country? (B) will the Universal adoption of a single script (e.g., the Devanagari0 in printing as well as writing Sanskrit in any way help the promotion of Sanskrit studies, (i) in all-India contexts and (ii) in the various States using local scripts? How far do you think are the various regional scripts (like Bengali, Telugu, Kannada, etc.) helpful in strengthening the close relation between Sanskrit and the regional languages using those scripts and in bringing Sanskrit nearer to people using them? (c) Do you think that there is a case for the evolving of a simplified or basic sanskrit? if so, what suggestions have you to offer in that connexion? 8. (a) What effect, do you think, will the present-day insistence upon the use of the regional languages in the domain of education and public service have on the study of Sanskrit? (b) To what extent will the study of Sanskrit assist in the development of regional languages and literatures? (c) How far will Sanskrit be helful in the building up of an all-India humanistic, scientific and technical terminology, and in the preparation of text-books for all-India use? (d) Would you suggest that Sanskrit should be made a compulsory subject for higher studies of modern Indian lanugages? 9. What is your view about the proposal of a sanskrit University? What exactly should be its scope, as distinguished from that of other Universities? how far will such a University to able to keep abreast of modern conditions in India? B.Sanskrit Education--The Modern as well as the Traditional systems 10. (a) What, in yout opinion, should be the place of the study of Sanskrit in the general scheme of a national education for India? (b) What special purpose should this study be expected to serve? (c) Do you think that the study of Sanskrit shouldbe made compulsory at any stage of education? If so ewould you like it to be made compulsory(i) for all students, or (ii) for a special class of students ? If you favour the latter alternative, for what class of students should it be made compulsory, and at what stage? (d) How far can the study of Sanskrit in the scheme of education in India be regarded as comparable to teh study of Greek and Latin in the scheme of education in the West? 11. (a) what should be the various stages in an integrated scheme of Sanskrit Education ? (b) What should be the duration of each stage? (c) What steps are necessary to maintain the continuity of courses and uniformity of purpose at different stages? (d) What should be the general syllabus of subjects at each stage? (e) What different methods of teaching Sanskrit are at present in vogue in India? What, in your opinion, is the best method at each stage? What should be the medium of instruction for teaching Sanskrit? 12. (a) Do you think that adequate facilities are at present available for the study of Sanskrit in (i) Universities and (ii) Secondary Schools in your part of the country? (b) Do you consider the provision for the study of Sastric texts made at present in the University Sanskrit courses adequate? What steps do you suggest for securing efficient teaching of such texts in Colleges and Universities? 13. (a) In what way have the nature and extent of the study of Sanskrit in Secondary Schools today affected the proper cultivation of that subject in Colleges and Universities? (b) What position, in your opinion, should be assigned to Sanskrit among languages to be studied at teh Secondary Schools stage? (c) What is your opinion about the possibility and advisability of learning four languages in Secondary Schools, namely, the mother-tongue, English, Sanskrit, and Hindi (or some other regional language for Hindi-speaking students)? (d) What, according to you, should be the order of priority and preference among these languages so far as their study in Secondary Schools in concerned? (e) How would you arrange the hours available in the time-tables of Secondary Schools for the teaching of these languages? (f) What in your view are the merits and defects of Sanskrit text-books now being used in Secondary Schools in your part of the country? 14. (a) What branches of study stand in need of adequate grounding in Sanskrit? Would you, recommend the inclusion of Sanskrit in the curricula of those subjects? (b) What have you to say about the suggestion that the sourses of studies in different non-Sanskrit subjects at the University level should include, in a complementary way, some study of the Sanskrit contributions in respective fields covered by those subjects, e.g., of Sanskrit poetry, drama, and criticism in the English Literature course, and of the history of Indian Mathematics, Medicine, Philosophy, Law, etc. in the courses of those respective subjects? 15. Do you regard the study of Pali and the Prakrits as complementary or as alternative to the study of Sanskrit? How, in your opioion, can these two be fruitfully co-ordinated in (i) Secondary Schools and (ii) Universites? 16. What, in your view, are the main factors responsible for the decline in the number of students taking to Sanskrit studies in (i) Pathasalas and Sanskrit Colleges. (ii) Secondary Schools and (iii) Colleges and Universities? 17.(a) What is the nature and extent of the facilities available in Sanskrit Colleges and Pathasalas in your region for the study of the various Sastras--especially of (i) Veda (including Srauta), (ii) Sabdasastra including Nirukta, Siksa, and Vyakaranain its various schools and aspects, (iii) Alamkara, (iv) Darsanas like Nyaya (pracina and Navya)and Vaisesika, Samkhya and Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta, Tantras, Jainism, and Buddhism, and(v) Dharmasastra, Itihasa-Purana, Silpasastra, Jyotisa, and Ayurveda? 18. What factors, in your opinion, are responsible for the deterioration, if any, in the quality and amount of Sastric teaching and in the production of original works in these branches? (c) Do you think that any modification is necessary in the traditional method of Sastric teaching and study in ordder to make it a more live and vigorous pursuit again ? (d) What, in your opinion, are the merits and defects of the methods of teaching Sanskrit as also of the courses of study, in Sanskrit Colleges and Pathasalas ? Retaining the merits, what steps do you suggest to remedy the defects? 18. (a) What, in your opinion, are the proper openings in life for students passing out of Sanskrit Colleges and Pathasalas ? (b) To what extent are these available in your part of the country? (c) Is there any serious dislocation of the economic background for the old-type Sanskrit scholars in your area, and, if so, in what way? Is there a possibility of restoring this economic background, or substituting some new means in the placeof the old? What various sources of financial support would you propose for enabling Sanskrit Pandits of the traditional type to carry on their adhyayana, adhypana and anusthana as before? (d) Do you think that, by reorganising the traditional courses in Sanskrit Colleges and Pathasalas, there is a possibility of students who pass out of them being able to compete for opportunities of like with persons of equivalent qualificationswho pass out of Schools and Universities? If so, on what lines should be reorgansation be effected? (e) What steps, in your opinion, are necessary on the part of the Central and State Governments to open up possibilities of career for persons passing Sanskrit examinations? (f) What are the possibilities of employment for students passing Sanskrit examinations in the Government Departments of Hindu Religious Endowments and Devasvam? 19. (a) What is the present condition of learning by rote the veda in its different schools (Vdadhyayana) in your part of the country? What in particular is the state of the knowledge of Samagana? Waht steps do you suggest for preserving these traditions? (b) What is the present state of popular expositions of Sanskrit Itihasa and Purana, as also of popular discourses on religion and philosophy in your part of the country? Do people evince sufficient interest in these activies? Are the persons giving such expositions and discourses adequately qualified ? What do youthink of the possibilities of this kind of work being better organised, thereby making it a source of employment for students passing out of Sanskrit Colleges and Pathasalas? (c) What, in your opinion, are the possibilities of maintaining and promoting the ancient Indian traditions of arts, crafts, and other technical disciplines embodied in Sanskrit texts? (d) What steps need to be taken to make Ayurveda (Indian medical science as preserved in Sanskrit texts) more live and useful today? (e) What ways would you suggest to make such branches of Sanskrit study as Ganita and Jyotisa take their proper place in the body of scientific knowledge today? 20. (a) What, in your opinion, are the comparative advantages and drawbacks of the traditional method and the modern method of the study of Sanskrit? (b) How far is it feasible to evolve a pattern of Sanskrit Education, which will incorporate the merits of both the traditional and modern methods? What measures would you propose in this connexion? 21. (a) To what extent should it be necessary for Sanskritscholars, both of the traditional type and of the modern type, to familiarise themselves with Indian antiquities and to obtain some practical knowledge of ancient Indian scripts? (b) Would you advocate the introduction of modern methods of historical and comparative study of Sanskrit as a language for all classes of Sanskrit students in the higher stages, both in Colleges and Universities and in pathasalas? 22. (a) Do you think that one of the aims of Sanskrit teaching should tbe to enable students to express themselves in Sanskrit? If so, what measures do you suggest for producing for producing in students a facility for speaking and writing Sanskrit? (b) Do you consider it desirable to familiarise boys and girls of tender age with Sanskrit language and culture in some form? If so, what ways and means do you suggest for achieving this end? (c) Do you think that there is a case for simplifying or reforming the method of teaching Sanskrit in the early stages? If so, what suggestions have you to offer in that connexion ? C.SANSKRIT RESEARCH 23. (a) Do you consider the provision available at present for research in Sanskrit adequate (i) in Universities, (ii) in various Research Institutions, and (iii) in locally organised bodies? Have you anything particular to say with regard to the conditions obtaining in your part of the country? (b) Are there any privately organised Research Instituties in your part of the country? What are their resources? What measures would you suggest for their functioning properly and maintaining an adequate output of work and standard of researchactivity (c) Are you of the opinion that there should be a Research Institute for Sanskrit and allied subjects in each State? what should be the constitution, programme, and function of such regional Research Institutes? From what sources should the expenses of such Research Institutes be met? Do you favour Government control? (d) What major forms or neglected lines of Sanskrit research, according to you, need to be specially sponsored? (e) What, in your opinion, are the drawbacks in the methods of Sanskrit research employed in India in general and in your region in particular? (f) What steps would you suggest to step up the output of research? (g) What machinery would you propose for the proper co-ordination of the various research activities in the field of Sanskrit studies? (h) is there any scope or provision available for research in Sanskrit Colleges and Pathasalas in your part of the country? If it is not adequate, what measures would you suggest in that respect? 24. (a) What facilities are at present available in your part of the country for the publication of the results of research in Sanskrit e.g., critical editions of unpublised texts or of texts already publised, original treatises, interpretative works,etc.? Do you consider them adequate ? (b) In what way and to what extent should the Central and State Government subsidise the publication of such works? (c) In what way can the publication of important unpublication Sanskrit texts be speeded up? (d) Are there any important pieces of research work lying unpublised or partly publised in your region? Do you know of any undertakings of high research value which are inadequately organised or insufficiently patronised? 25.(a) Are the Sanskrit manuscripts lying in private collections in your part of the country properly safeguarded? What steps would you propose for making the owners or such collections and the general public aware of their importance? (b) Is the work of collecting Sanskrit manuscripts adequately organised in your region? (c) Is the condition of Sanskrit manuscripts in the manuscript libraries in your region satisfactory in repect of preservation and cataloguing? (d) Are the facilities for the loan, copying and preparation of photostats and microfilms of manuscripts of photostats and microfilms of manuscripts and for the reading of microfilms adequate in those libraries? 26. What is the nature and extent of facilities available in the libraries in your part of the country for consultation and issue of Sanskrit books and manuscripts ? 27. What steps, in your view, need to be taken to make the results of the researches in the fields of Sanskrit by modern scholars, Indian and foreign, known (i) to traditional Pandits and (ii) to the general public? 28. What ways and means at the national level would you suggest to help speedy publication of unpublished Sanskrit manuscripts and other Indological material preserved in museums and libraries (public and private ) in foreign countries? D. ORGANISATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SANSKRIT STUDIES AND EDUCATION 29. Do you think that it is necessary to set up at the Centre an All-India Board or Diretorate of Sanskrit Education? if so, what, in your opinion, should be the constitution, functions, and powers of such a Board or Directorate ? Do you favour the stting up of such Boards also by the different States? 30. (a) What should be the minimum qualifications of Sanskrit teachers in (i) Secondary Schools, (ii) Colleges, (iii) Universities, and (iv) Sanskrit Colleges and pathasalas? (b) Is any pedagogical training necessary for Sanskrit teachers? If so, for which categories of teachers mentioned above? What should be the content and duration of such training? Should the training be given before or after employment? (c) Are adequately qualified Sanskrit teachers of the various categories available in sufficient numbers in your region? (d) What have you to say about the terms and conditions of service for Sanskrit teachers of different categories and for heads of Sanskrit Institutions ? Should they be put on the same footing as teachers of other subjects in Schools and Colleges? 31. (a) What is the nature and extent of endowments available in your part of the country for promoting Sanskrit Education? Have any of these endowments been diverted for purposes other than those for which they were made?Do you consider such diversiondesirable? (b) Following the taking over of the Zamindaris by Government and the merger of Princely States, have adequate steps been taken by the present-day administration in your part of the country for the continuance of the help which used to be given to Sanskrit scholars and institutions by those States and Zamindaris? 32. (a) What principles would you recommend for grants-in-aid to be given to Sanskrit Research Institutions by the Central and State Governments? (b) What should be the basis of financial assistance to bona fide Sanskrit Colleges, Pathasalas, Catuspathis, and Tols by the Central and State Governments as well as by Local Bodies? (c) In what way can the public participate in financing Sanskrit Education/ (d) What measures, such as stipends, free-studentships, free boarding and lodging, etc., are necessary to attract students to the study of Sanskrit? (e) Do you consider the facilities of stupends, free-studentships, etc. now available in your part of the country sufficient? 33. (a) In what way is it possible to secure uniformity of courses for and standards of the various Sastric examination? (b) Do you think that there should be an all-India uniformity in the nomenclature of degrees and diplomas in Sastric learning awarded by different universites, Institutions, States, and Boards? If so, have you any suggestions to make in that behalf? E.SUPPLEMENTARY If there are any points, not covered by the Questionnaire, on which you desire to place your views before the Commission, the Commission will greatly appreciate your expressing such views by way of a supplement.